| Cahuilla |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Cupeño |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Luiseño |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Serrano |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Kitanemuk |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Kawaiisu |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Timbisha |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Western Mono |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Chemehuevi |
no |
|
|
|
|
|
| Southern Paiute |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Southern Ute |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Shoshone |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Comanche |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Idaho Shoshone |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Northern Paiute |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Gabrielino |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Achagua |
n/a |
|
Wilson & Levinsohn 1992: 91 |
|
|
|
| Resígaro |
no |
Not discussed in the formulation of the verb at various levels. |
Allin, 1976: 105, 124, 204, 212 |
|
|
|
| Bare |
n/a |
|
Aikhenvald, 1995 |
|
|
|
| Piapoco |
yes |
Indicates that the speaker has knowledge of the event by way of evidence left during the event. |
Galindo, 2002: 177-178 |
|
|
|
| Yukuna |
no |
|
Shauer & Shauer, 1978: p. 42 |
|
|
|
| Yavitero |
no |
|
Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69 |
|
|
|
| Wapishana |
no |
|
Santos 2006 |
|
|
|
| Wayuu |
no |
|
Mansen & Captain, 2000: p. 800 |
|
|
|
| Tariana |
yes |
There are both generic inferred and specific inferred morphemes. |
Aikhenvald, 2003: 289 |
|
|
|
| Apurinã |
no |
Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). |
Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 |
|
|
|
| Asheninka Apurucayali |
no |
|
Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983 |
|
|
|
| Maipure |
no |
|
Zamponi 2003:37-47 |
|
|
|
| Yanesha' |
no |
|
Duff-Tripp 1997:120-4 |
|
|
|
| Kinikinau |
no info |
|
|
|
|
|
| Baure |
no info |
|
Danielsen 2007 |
|
|
|
| Nanti |
yes |
Second-position clitic. |
Michael, 2008. p. 325 |
|
|
|
| Paresi |
no info |
|
Rowan 1978, Rowan and Burgess 1979, Brandão 2010 |
|
|
|
| Palikur |
no info |
no information on evidentials |
Launey 2003 |
|
|
|
| Yine |
no |
list of affixes does not mention evidentials |
Matteson 1965:71-80 |
|
|
|
| Añun |
no info |
no discussion of evidentiality |
Patte 1989 |
|
|
|
| Bora |
no |
|
Seifart - 2005 |
|
|
|
| Makiritare |
no |
|
Hall 1988; Escoriaza 1959:15-18 |
|
No description of evidentials given in source |
|
| Makushi |
no |
Use of various verbs convey this. |
Carson 1982; Abbott 1991 |
|
|
|
| Eñepa |
yes |
The marking of evidential is fused with the TAM verbal morphology. This inferential/direct evidential distinction only occurs in the past tense. |
Mattei-Muller 2002:154 |
|
|
|
| Pemon |
no info |
|
de Armellada 1999 |
|
|
|
| Guna |
no |
|
Smith texts |
|
|
|
| Naso |
no |
|
Quesada 2000 |
|
|
|
| Ika |
no |
|
Frank 1985:60-104 |
|
|
|
| Kogi |
no info |
|
|
|
|
|
| Cabecar |
no info |
|
|
|
|
|
| Guaymí |
no info |
|
|
|
|
|
| Damana |
yes |
|
|
|
|
|
| Sikuani |
no |
no evidence of evidentials |
Queixalós 1998, 2000 |
|
|
|
| Macaguan |
no info |
|
Buenaventura - 1993 |
|
|
|
| Aguaruna |
no |
|
Overall 2007:471, 549 |
|
|
|
| Northern Emberá |
yes |
|
Mortensen 1999:87 |
|
Catío |
|
| Waorani |
yes |
|
Peeke 1973:16-17 |
|
|
|
| Ingá |
yes |
|
Levinson 1978:25 |
|
|
|
| Matses |
yes |
|
Fleck:405-17 |
|
|
|
| Mapudungun |
no |
|
Zúñiga 2006, p. 155-9 |
|
|
|
| Páez |
no |
|
Jung:75-87 |
|
|
|
| Quechua Ayacuchano |
yes |
|
Parker 1965:88-97 |
|
|
|
| Tikuna |
no info |
|
|
|
|
|
| Urarina |
no |
|
Olawsky:496 |
|
|
|
| Waunana |
no info |
|
|
|
|
|
| Andoke |
no info |
|
|
|
|
|
| Puinave |
yes |
|
Giron 2008: p286-287 |
|
|
|
| Central Aymara |
yes |
|
Levin 2004: 7 |
|
The evidentials in Aymara indicate whether or not the speaker has personally experienced the event in question and how distant the knowledge of the event feels (usually in terms of time) |
|
| Kakua |
yes |
|
Bolaños fieldnotes |
|
|
|
| Kaingang |
no info |
|
Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011 |
|
|
|
| Minica Witoto |
no |
not indicated/expected |
Minor and Minor 1982. p.94 |
|
|
|
| Hup |
yes |
|
Epps 2008 |
|
|
|
| Nadëb/Roçado dialect |
no |
|
Weir 1984 |
|
|
|
| Dâw |
no |
|
Martins 2004 |
|
|
|
| Desano |
yes |
The inferred evidential is composed of a verb phrase with the verb árĩ- 'be' acting as an auxiliary suffixed by the recent or remote past marker and verb agreement. |
Miller 1999, p. 67 |
Some Desano speakers feel that the assumed would be used if the event had just happened and the inferred used when referring to it later. |
|
|
| Cubeo |
yes |
assumed |
Morse & Maxwell 1999, p. 33 |
|
|
|
| Kotiria |
yes |
|
Stenzel 2004, p. 345 |
|
|
|
| Makuna |
yes |
|
Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.50 |
|
|
|
| Koreguaje |
yes |
|
Cook & Criswell 1993, p.86 |
|
|
|
| Barasano |
yes |
The inferred past tense is used to mark a past event which the speaker infers on the basis of current evidence. Direct evidence |
Jones & Jones 1991, p.87 |
|
|
|
| Tanimuca |
yes |
The evidential affix -rihi (assumed) indicates that the basis for the speaker's statement is assumption. |
Strom 1992, p.90 |
|
|
|
| Siona |
no info |
Conveyed with word choice/semantics. |
Wheeler 1987 |
|
|
|
| Tukano |
yes |
|
Ramirez 1997: 120, 150 |
|
|
|
| Yanomami |
yes |
|
Ramirez 1994 |
|
|
|
| Ninam |
no |
|
Goodwin-Gomez, p.97 |
|
|
|
| Sanumá |
no |
|
Borgman 1990: 165, 170 |
|
|
|
| Surui |
no info |
|
|
|
|
|
| Karitiana |
no |
|
Everett 2006:281-4 |
|
|
|
| Nheengatu |
no |
|
Cruz 2011 |
|
|
|
| Paraguayan Guaraní |
no info |
|
|
|
|
|
| Aché |
no info |
|
|
|
|
|
| Kokama |
no |
|
Vallejos 2010 |
|
|
|
| Nyangumarta |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Jingulu |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Wambaya |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Bunuba |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Walmajarri |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Nyulnyul |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Warrwa |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Worrorra |
yes |
|
ms15 |
|
|
1 |
| Garrwa |
no info |
|
|
|
|
X |
| Gooniyandi |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Warlpiri |
no info |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Bardi |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Yugambeh |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yorta Yorta |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Yir Yoront |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yindjibarndi |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Yidiny |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Yanyuwa |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Yandruwandha |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Yan-nhangu |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yalarnnga |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Woiwurrung |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Wirangu |
No |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Wemba-Wemba |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Warumungu |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Wangkumara |
no info |
|
|
|
|
X |
| Uradhi |
No |
|
363 |
|
|
0 |
| Paakantyi |
no info |
|
|
|
|
X |
| Pitta-Pitta |
No |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Pintupi |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Nyungar |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Nhanta |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Ngiyambaa |
no |
|
275-277 |
|
|
0 |
| Ngayawang |
No |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Muruwari |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Mpakwithi |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Mayi-Yapi |
No |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Martuthunira |
no |
|
136-164 |
|
|
0 |
| Marrgany |
No |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Kuuk Thaayorre |
No |
|
66 |
|
|
0 |
| Kuku Yalanji |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Kugu-Nganhcara |
No |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Kaurna |
No |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Kalkatungu |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Jaru |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Guugu-Yimidhirr |
No |
|
80 |
|
|
0 |
| Gureng Gureng |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Gupapuyngu |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Gumbaynggirr |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Gugu-Badhun |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Yuwaalaraay |
No |
|
74 |
|
|
0 |
| Dyirbal |
No |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Duungidjawu |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Djinang |
No |
|
167 |
|
|
0 |
| Djabugay |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Diyari |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Dharuk |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Dharawal |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Darkinyung |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Bularnu |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Biri |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Bidjara-Gungabula |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Batyala |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Arabana |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Alyawarr |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Nyikina |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Yawuru |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Ngarinyin |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yulparija |
No |
|
35 |
|
|
0 |
| Wathawurrung |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Mathi-Mathi |
no |
|
96 |
|
|
0 |
| Hunter River and Lake Macquarie |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Thanggati |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Katthang |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Panyjima |
no |
|
208 |
|
|
0 |
| Ngarinyeri |
No |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Kurrama |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Yingkarta |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Githabul |
No |
|
22 |
|
|
0 |
| Gunya |
No |
|
326 |
|
|
0 |
| Kunjen |
No |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| WesternTorres |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Wakaya |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Yindjilindji |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Bandjalang |
No |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Ngaatjatjara |
No |
|
30 |
|
|
0 |
| Arrernte |
No |
|
49 |
|
|
0 |
| Kokatha |
No |
|
28 |
|
|
0 |
| Karajarri |
No |
|
165 |
|
|
0 |
| Pitjantjatjara |
No |
|
Y 8 |
|
|
0 |
| Ritharrngu |
No |
|
71 |
|
|
0 |
| Warrgamay |
No |
|
52-9 |
|
|
0 |
| Warluwarra |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Warnman |
No |
|
45 |
|
|
0 |
| Djapu |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Bilinarra |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Wiradjuri |
no info |
|
|
|
|
x |
| Aghu-Tharnggala |
No |
|
70 |
|
|
0 |
| Narungga |
No |
|
74 |
|
|
0 |
| Tharrkari |
No |
|
31 |
|
|
0 |
| Wajarri |
No |
|
96 |
|
|
0 |
| Warungu |
no |
|
|
|
|
0 |
| Adnyamathanha |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Yagua |
no |
|
Payne and Payne 1990 |
|
|
|
| Baniwa |
no |
|
Ramirez 2001 |
|
|
|
