Kogi
- Family
- Chibchan
- Region
- South America
- ISO 639-3
- kog
- Location
- 10.95°, -73.80°
- Notes
- Features
-
Grammatical Data
- Data Sources
- Celedón, Rafael. 1886. Gramática de la lengua koggaba. Maisonneuve freres and leclerc, editeurs, Paris. Ortiz, Carolina. 1994. Clases y tipos de predicados en la lengua Kogi. In Amerindia 23:3, 377-399. Stendal, Chadwick. 1976. Puntos básicos de la gramática cogui. SIL, Bogotá.
Grammatical Data (226)
| Category | Grammatical Feature | Grammatical Feature: Notes | Feature Status | Phonemicized Form | Orthographic Form | Grammatical Notes | Source | Created By | Etymology Notes | General Notes | Phylogenetic Code |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phonology - Segmental | Pre-/post-nasalized stops | Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive. | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Phonology - Segmental | Glottalized/ejective consonants | Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative] | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Phonology - Segmental | Palatalized stops | Phonemic contrast | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Phonology - Segmental | Phonemic vowel length | Does the language have long and short vowels? | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Phonology - Segmental | Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Phonology - Segmental | Complex onsets | Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Phonology - Segmental | No codas | *(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained] | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Phonology - Segmental | Word-final coda required | Do all syllables end in a consonant? | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Phonology - Suprasegmental | Contrastive tones | Note how many contrastive tones | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Phonology - Suprasegmental | Contrastive stress | Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference? | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Phonology - Suprasegmental | Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable | In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Phonology - Suprasegmental | Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries | Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to? | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Phonology - Suprasegmental | Vowel harmony | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Morphology - General | Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb) | Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number] | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - General | Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes | Stem change, tone | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - General | Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes) | Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - General | Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing | There are many more prefixes than suffixes | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - General | Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing | There are many more suffixes than prefixes | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - General | Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred | The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - General | Reduplication: full | The full morpheme is reduplicated | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - General | Reduplication: partial | Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs | Productive NN compounding | Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs | Productive VV serialization (without compounding) | Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs | Productive VV compounding | Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs | Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions | There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap' | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs | Auxiliary verb(s) | There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - Incorporation | Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process | Verb contains nominal segment | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Morphology - Incorporation | Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs | Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Noun classes/genders | Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Number of noun classes/genders | Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders) | Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain. | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates | Masculine, feminine, neuter | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system | Animate/inanimate, human/non-human | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns | add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only | no | Celedón 1886:13 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | "Repeater" classifiers | Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot" | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals) | Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns | Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.' | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Singular number may be marked on the noun | Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Plural affix on noun | yes | {-cuai} | The plural saffix is represented as -cuai but I am not sure if that is its phonological form | Stendal 1976:18 | Daniel Valle | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Plural marked by reduplication of noun | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Plural word/clitic | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Plural marked on human or animate nouns only | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix | Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns | no | Celedón 1886:13 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Unique associative plural marker | e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them' | yes | /-na/ | Based on the glossing of examples | Ortiz 1994:383 | Daniel Valle | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Definite or specific articles | Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only | no | Celedón 1886:7 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives | Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Indefinite or non-specific article | or marker | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals | Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound) | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number) | Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system | 3 | Celedón 1886:11 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.) | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories | Gender in 3sg pronouns | no | Celedón 1886:13 | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories | Gender in 3pl pronouns | no | Celedón 1886:13 | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories | Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns | no | Celedón 1886:13 | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories | Formal/informal distinction in pronouns | Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories | Reflexive pronouns | e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Adpositions mark core NPs | Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: number of cases | Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun | 5 | It considers nominative, genitive, dative, ablative and accusative from which only accusative is morphologicaly unmarked. | Stendal 1976:18 | Daniel Valle | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked | Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: symmetrical | All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: asymmetrical | Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: suffix or postpositional clitic | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: prefix or prepositional clitic | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: infix or inpositional clitic | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: stem change | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: tone | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: comitative = instrumental | Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument' | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Base-2 | At least some part of the system involves base-2 | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Base-5 | At least some part of the system involves base-5 | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Base-10 | At least some part of the system involves base-10 | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Other base (specify) | 4, 20, etc. | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5 | e.g. two = 'eye-quantity' | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Numerals do not go above 5 | 'Many' or some other non-exact term used | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Numerals do not go above 10 | 'Many' or some other non-exact term used | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Other nominal | Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates | i.e. nominal or adjectival | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Categories - Other nominal | Person inflection on non-verbal predicates | i.e. nominal or adjectival | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession | Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N | alienable/inalienable? | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession | Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N | alienable/inalienable? | yes | /-ni/ | Ortiz 1994:384 | Daniel Valle | |||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession | Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent | e.g. 'the boy-'s dog' | yes | Ortiz 1994:384 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession | Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head | e.g. 'the boy his-dog' | no | Ortiz 1994:384 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession | Possessive classifiers | There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability | Morphological marking of inalienable possession | Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability | Morphological marking of alienable possession | Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability | Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed | An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability | Inalienable possession of kin terms | 'my-father' but *father | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability | Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal) | 'my-leg' but *leg | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability | Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed | Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Adjectives | Underived adjectives | There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Adjectives | Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP | There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco | no | Celedón 1886:9 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Derivation | Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival) | There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Derivation | Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer) | There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb | yes | /-ka/ | Ortiz 1994:384 | Daniel Valle | |||||
| Nominal Syntax - Derivation | Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song) | There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Derivation | Productive verbalizing morphology | There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Nominal Syntax - Other | NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently | 'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary' | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Dedicated past marker(s) | Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere | yes | /-a/ | Stendal 1976:6 | Daniel Valle | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference | e.g. distant vs. recent past | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference | e.g. imminent vs. distant future | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Dedicated future or non-past marker(s) | yes | /-li/ | Ortiz 1994:381 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Tense-aspect affixes: prefix | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Tense-aspect affixes: suffix | yes | Stendal 1976:6-7 | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Tense-aspect suppletion | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form | There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood | yes | /hĩ-/ | Ortiz 1994:390 | Daniel Valle | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Polite imperative morpheme | There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses | There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative) | as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing' | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Situational possibility: affix on verb | Inflectional marking of capacity to do something | yes | /-kuka/ | The suffix appears as -cuca which probably may be represented phonologically as /-kuka/- | Stendal 1976:15 | Daniel Valle | ||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Situational possibility: verbal construction | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Situational possibility: other marking | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Epistemic possibility: affix on verb | Modal expressing hypothesis | yes | /i-kɨ/ | Ortiz 1994:397 | Daniel Valle | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Epistemic possibility: verbal construction | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Epistemic possibility: other marking | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Marking of expected/unexpected action or result | There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Verbal frustrative | Modal expressing frustration ("in vain") | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Verbal habitual | Modal expressing habituality | no | /-ge/ | There is a verbal habitual suffix | Ortiz 1994:386 | Daniel Valle | ||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Apprehensive construction | There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens' | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Reality status marking on verbs | There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events' | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Affect markers (positive/negative) | Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Directionals | Directional elements affixed to the verb | There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc. | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Grammaticalized visual | Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Grammaticalized nonvisual | Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Grammaticalized inferential | Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker. | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Grammaticalized reportive | Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly' | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Grammaticalized quotative | Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Other evidential | Any other evidential values not represented above | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Evidentiality: part of tense system | Includes portmanteau morphs | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Evidentiality: separate particle | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Evidentiality: modal morpheme | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Verbal Categories - Verbal number | Verbal number suppletion | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Verbal Categories - Other | Social interaction markers | Note the type of interaction | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Word Order | No fixed basic constituent order | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Word Order | VS in intransitive clauses | Verb precedes subject | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Word Order | VS in transitive clauses | no | Stendal 1976:3 | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Word Order | VO in transitive clauses | Verb precedes object | no | Stendal 1976:3 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Word Order | OS in transitive clauses | Object precedes subject | no | Stendal 1976:3 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Word Order | Preposition-Noun | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Word Order | Noun-Postposition or case suffix | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Word Order | Gen-Noun | Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Word Order | Noun-Gen | Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John') | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Word Order | Adj-Noun | Adjective precedes the noun | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Word Order | Noun-Adj | Adjective follows the noun | yes | Stendal 1976:1 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Word Order | Dem-Noun | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Word Order | Noun-Dem | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Word Order | Num-Noun | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Word Order | Noun-Num | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Word Order | Noun-Rel | Relative clause follows noun that it modifies | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Word Order | Rel-Noun | Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Word Order | Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative) | e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away') | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Word Order | Relative clause is correlative or adjoined | e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat' | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Word Order | Question word is clause initial | 'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative | Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects | no | Stendal 1976:18 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative | Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked | yes | Stendal 1976:18 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive | Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker | no | Stendal 1976:18 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite | Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers | no | Stendal 1976:18 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive | Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive | yes, no, mixed, other | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative | Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive | yes, no, mixed, other | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical | Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of verbal person-marking: split | More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc. | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position | Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb | Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb | Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host | Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position | Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Person marking on intransitive verbs | Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes | yes | Ortiz 1994:377 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs | Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers | yes | Ortiz 1994:377 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs | Transitive verbs take object (P) markers | yes | Ortiz 1994:394 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects | 3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system | yes | Stendal 1976:5 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects | 3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Number can be marked separately from person on the verb | Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers | Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Gender distinguished in verbal person markers | For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice | Ditransitive constructions: indirect object | In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice | Ditransitive constructions: double object | In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice | Ditransitive constructions: secondary object | In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing | Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme | Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal. | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing | Reflexive: dedicated morpheme | Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive. | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing | Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme | Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing | Passive | Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing | Antipassive | Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing | Other intransitivizing morphology | There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Applicative: benefactive | Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Applicative: other | Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Causative: prefix | Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb | no | Stendal 1976:16 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Causative: suffix | Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb | no | The causative /-gu/ seems to be attached to a kind of auxiliary. This is based on examples | Stendal 1976:16 | Daniel Valle | |||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone | Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Causative: serial verb or analytical construction | Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy' | Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.' | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Causative: dedicated sociative | Indicates that causer participates in event | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence) | There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency | yes | A object marker specific for "objects/things/ may be attached to intransitive verbs changing them into transitive ones | Ortiz 1994:392 | Daniel Valle | |||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Clausal negator is a preposed element | Clausal negator is a preposed element | no | Stendal 1976.16 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Clausal negator is a postposed element | Clausal negator is a postposed element | yes | Stendal 1976.16 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Negatives: affix | Negatives: affix | yes | The verbal suffix is represented as zha but there is no clue of what its phonological represenation might be. However, it isn ot clear in the source but it seems that negation is encoded along with tense in a portmanteau suffix. | Stendal 1976.16 | Daniel Valle | |||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Negatives: particle | Negatives: particle | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Negatives: auxiliary verb | Negatives: auxiliary verb | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Negatives: double | Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas' | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist' | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Distinct negative expression 'I don't know' | Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Interrogatives | Polar questions: interrogative particle | Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Interrogatives | Polar questions: verb morphology | Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Interrogatives | Polar questions: word order | Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Interrogatives | Polar questions: intonation only | Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Interrogatives | Content questions: word order differs from declaratives | Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Predicate adjectives: verbal | Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Predicate adjectives: nominal | Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible | Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all) | yes | Ortiz 1994:383 | Daniel Valle | ||||||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Headless relative clauses | Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause | Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses. | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker | It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Relativizer is a verbal affix | no info | Daniel Valle | ||||||||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer | The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions | Grammaticalized verbal desiderative | Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it) | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Other | Clause chaining | Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause. | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Other | Morphologically marked switch-reference system | There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined | no info | Daniel Valle | |||||||
| Simple Clauses - Other | Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses | Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence | yes | Stendal 1976:10 | Daniel Valle |