Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Guna

Family: Chibchan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: cuk
Location: 9.16°, -78.31°
Notes
Features: Grammatical Data

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Data Sources: Smith, Wikaliler Daniel 2014. A grammar of Guna: A community-centered approach. University of Texas at Austin (doctoral dissertation. Smith, Wikaliler. Grammar notes.

Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source	General Notes
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	yes	e.g. ur-dup, gas-dup, mor-dup	Smith texts
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no		Smith texts
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	yes	verb+positional and verb+directional	Smith texts
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no		Smith texts
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	no		Smith texts
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no		Smith texts
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Smith texts
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes	aspect, mood, evidentials, adverbial suffixes	Smith texts
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Smith texts
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Smith texts	causative is the only prefix
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Smith texts
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	yes	e.g. dunnu - dunnu (wrinkled)	Smith texts
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	no		Smith texts
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	no		Smith texts
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	yes	verb + directional adverbs	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	no	prepositions that are grammaticalizing into case markers	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	4	no core case markers	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	yes	subject and object not marked. Other arguments are	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	yes		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes	postpositional clitics for obliques	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	2	distal, proximal	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no	shape is relevant only in numeral classifiers	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	yes	round, flat, bulky/oblong, long, general (respectively)	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes	-mar is short form	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no	allows a plural, but not preferred	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	yes	plural enclitic	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	yes	only for a limited # of nouns	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	yes		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	yes	base 20	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no	only imperfective -na on nouns	Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Smith texts
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no	a coreferential na particle appears before noun/pronoun	Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	yes	small class (e.g. bipi 'small')	Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	no		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	yes		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	no		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	no		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	no		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no	-bo comitative	Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes	pronouns are affixed on N	Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes	optional for third person	Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	no		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	no		Smith texts
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Smith texts
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no		Smith
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Smith
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no		Smith
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	no		Smith
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Smith
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Smith
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	no		Smith
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Smith
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no		Smith
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no		Smith
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no		Smith
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no		Smith
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no		Smith
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	no	no core case markers	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		no	pronouns are the same as subj. and obj.	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	yes	-bi is short form	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	yes		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	yes	marked on the verb	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	yes		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	yes	prohibitive, volitional neg., ability negative	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no	wissuli	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	yes		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	yes	zero copula is preferred	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		yes		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	yes		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	no	no person marking on verb	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Smith texts	no person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	yes	=mala clitic may be marked on verb	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	yes	dative marker	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	yes	in rare cases, an indirect object may be unmarked for case	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	no	there is reflexive/reciprocal particle	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes	-le is the short form	Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	yes		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	yes		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no		Smith texts
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	no	no tense markers	Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes	aspect suffixes	Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	yes		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	yes		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		yes	affixes	Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no	imperative verb carries no inflection	Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	yes	different particle for prohibitive	Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		yes	nabir particle preverbal	Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	yes		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	yes		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no		Smith texts
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no		Smith texts
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no	SOV - strongly preferred	Smith texts
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no		Smith texts
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no		Smith texts
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	no		Smith texts
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no		Smith texts
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Smith texts
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes	both postpositions and case suffixes	Smith texts
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes		Smith texts
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no		Smith texts
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	no		Smith texts
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	yes		Smith texts
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes		Smith texts
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no		Smith texts
Word Order	Num-Noun		no		Smith texts
Word Order	Noun-Num		yes	N Cl-Num	Smith texts
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes		Smith texts
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Smith texts
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	yes		Smith texts
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Smith texts
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes	it can also remain in-situ	Smith texts


Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - Incorporation
Morphology - Incorporation
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Other nominal
Nominal Categories - Other nominal
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives
Nominal Syntax - Derivation
Nominal Syntax - Derivation
Nominal Syntax - Derivation
Nominal Syntax - Derivation
Nominal Syntax - Other
Nominal Syntax - Possession
Nominal Syntax - Possession
Nominal Syntax - Possession
Nominal Syntax - Possession
Nominal Syntax - Possession
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Suprasegmental
Phonology - Suprasegmental
Phonology - Suprasegmental
Phonology - Suprasegmental
Phonology - Suprasegmental
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Other
Simple Clauses - Other
Simple Clauses - Other
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Directionals
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Other
Verbal Categories - Verbal number
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order

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