Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Asheninka Apurucayali

Family: Arawakan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: cpc
Location: -9.82°, -74.62°
Notes: Grammar data also includes some information on closely related variety Asheninka Perene (prq).
Features: Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Grammatical Data

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Data Sources: Mihas, Elena. 2010. Essentials of Ashéninka Perené grammar. The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. (Doctoral disseration). Payne, David. 1981. The Phonology and Morphology of Axininca Campa. Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of Texas - Arlington. Payne, David. 1983. Estudios Linguisticos de Textos Asheninco (Campa, Arawak Preandino). Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. Yarinacocha, Pucallpa, Perú.

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (1)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna		Bactris gasipaes	quiri	kiri	pifayo, pijuayo														Payne 1989: 459


peach palm, pejibaye palm

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Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1983
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no	However, there is a process of stringing together verbs that each carry their own markings, which produces one thought. For example, ("it will have happened + I will want + I will go + I will accompany + father" = "then I will want to go with father")	Payne 1981:13
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	no	However, there is a process of stringing together verbs that each carry their own markings, which produces one thought. For example, ("it will have happened + I will want + I will go + I will accompany + father" = "then I will want to go with father")	Payne 1981:13
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no	Anything that could be interpreted as a "weak" verb is an affix that modifies the main verb.	Payne 1981:1016
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	no	Instead, suffixes are utilized in such a way that they translate as auxiliary verbs, but do not take grammatical markings. (In a way, they are verbal markings themselves.)	Payne 1981:3031
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no		Payne 1981:12
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no	Tone.	Mihas 2010
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes	Tense, mode, person, number, gender	Payne 1981:12
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Payne 1983:1112
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Payne 1983:1112
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Payne 1983:1112
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	yes		Mihas 2010:120
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	yes		Payne 1983:50, 55, 149
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	yes		Mihas 2010:96
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	yes	adverbials	Payne 1981:3842
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	no	no adpositions on core cases	Mihas 2010, Payne 1981, Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	1	locative	Payne 1981:110111
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	yes	limited, see above	Payne 1981:110111
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	no	Mostly inanimates, which are possible/plausible objects.	Payne 1981:110111
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	yes	Mostly inanimates are marked.	Payne 1981:110111
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Payne 1981:110111
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Payne 1981:110111
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Payne 1981:110111
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Payne 1981:110111
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Payne 1981:110111
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no	These are both verbal markings.	Payne 1981
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no	no evidence of article	Mihas 2010, Payne 1981, Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	yes		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no	When referring to an unspecified object, nothing is used.	Payne 1981; Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	yes	mainly by older speakers	Mihas 2010:160
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		yes	Particularly apparent in 1st person.	Payne 1983:9195
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	3	Proximal, medial, distal	Mihas 2010:174
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		yes	gender	Mihas 2010:174
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes		Payne 1981:13, 2234
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	2	Masc./non-masc	Mihas 2010:122
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes		Payne 1981:13, 2234; Mihas 2010:107
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	yes	Masc./non-masc	Mihas 2010:122
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes	Gender distinction is straightforward for human nouns. However, animate nouns are usually masculine, and inanimate nouns are usually feminine, with many exceptions (including flora, which according to Asheninca legend were human at one time).	Payne 1981:13, 2234
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	no		Payne 1981:13, 2234
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	yes		Payne 1981:13, 2234
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		yes		Mihas 2010:106
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes		Mihas 2010:106
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no		Mihas 2010:184
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no	Only plurality is marked on the noun. Reference to singular nouns is marked on the verb, otherwise.	Payne 1981:2527
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes		Mihas 2010:106
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Payne 1983:12; Payne 1981:12
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Payne 1983:12; Payne 1981:12
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Payne 1983:12; Payne 1981:12
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no		Payne 1983:12; Payne 1981:12
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no	Plural forms with augmentative -ite	Mihas 2010:159,160
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no info	maybe 3	Mihas 2010:184
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	yes	in actual speech	Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	yes		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes	adjectives as a predicate may take aspect	Mihas 2010:145
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes	adjectives only	Mihas 2010:145
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		yes		Payne 1981:34; Payne 1983:9192
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		yes		Payne 1981:34; Payne 1983:9192
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Payne 1981:34; Payne 1983:9192
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Payne 1981:34; Payne 1983:9192
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no	Only reflexive affixes.	Payne 1981:32
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	yes	very small class of adjectives	Mihas 2010:143
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	yes	agreement with noun	Mihas 2010:143
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1983
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes	Turns it into a noun, which can then be either subject or object.	Payne 1981:111
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	yes	Turns it into a noun, which can then be either subject or object.	Payne 1981:111
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	no	According to Mihas, some nouns may be derived from verbs	Payne 1981; Payne 1983; Mihas 2010:143
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1983
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Payne 1983:12, 49
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes		Payne 1983:12, 49
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no		Payne 1983:49
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes		Payne 1983:49
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	yes		Payne 1981:4953
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	yes	They both take morphological marking. A possessed (alienable) noun with no person prefix must have a non-possessive suffix . A possessed (inalianable) noun with a possessive suffix must have a person prefix.	Payne 1981:4953
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	yes	They both take morphological marking. A possessed (alienable) noun with no person prefix must have a non-possessive suffix . A possessed (inalianable) noun with a possessive suffix must have a person prefix.	Payne 1981:4953
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	yes		Payne 1981:4953
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	yes		Mihas 2010:123
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	yes		Mihas 2010:123
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Payne 1981:4953
Phonology - Segmental	Oral-nasal contour segments	May be analyzed as oralized nasal consonants or as oral consonants with a nasal release. e.g. mb-, -bm	no		Payne 1981
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1980
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	yes		Payne 1980:910
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	yes		Mihas 2010:45
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Payne 1980:710
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Mihas 2010:71
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	yes		Mihas 2010
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Payne 1980:710
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no		Payne 1980:710
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no		Payne 1980:710
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no		Payne 1980:710
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no		Payne 1980:1020
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no	Happens only occasionally, however.	Mihas 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	no	Full NPs are not marked for case	Payne 1983:1619, 2325
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Payne 1983:1619, 2325
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no	Full NPs are not marked for case	Payne 1983:1619, 2325
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Payne 1983:1619, 2325
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Payne 1983:1619, 2325
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		no	No apparent case markings on pronouns. Pronouns appear as verbal markings rather than free pronouns.	Payne 1983:1619, 2325, 9096
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no	No apparent case markings on pronouns. Pronouns appear as verbal markings rather than free pronouns.	Payne 1983:1619, 2325, 9096
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no	No apparent case markings on pronouns. Pronouns appear as verbal markings rather than free pronouns.	Payne 1983:1619, 2325, 9096
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no	No apparent case markings on pronouns. Pronouns appear as verbal markings rather than free pronouns.	Payne 1983:1619, 2325, 9096
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no	No apparent case markings on pronouns. Pronouns appear as verbal markings rather than free pronouns.	Payne 1983:1619, 2325, 9096
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	yes	This is the "optional" case. Pronouns appear as verbal markings rather than free pronouns. It appears that Asheninka may be in the process of "shifting" systems.	Payne 1983:1619, 2325, 9096
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	yes	Pronouns appear as verbal markings rather than free pronouns.	Payne 1983:1619, 2325, 9096
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no	Pronouns appear as verbal markings rather than free pronouns.	Payne 1983:1619, 2325, 9096
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no info		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	yes	While the two systems can mostly be used interchangeably and synonimously, there is an obligatory use of erg/abs when referring to non-terminal actions or non-specific subjects.	Payne 1983:2025
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	yes		Payne 1982:20
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Payne 1982:20
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Payne 1982:20
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	no		Payne 1982:20
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	yes		Mihas 2010
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	yes		Payne 1981:1011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no		Payne 1981:1011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	no		Payne 1982:19
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	yes		Payne 1982:19
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Payne 1982:19
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Payne 1982:19
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no info		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	yes		Payne 1981:29
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	yes		Payne 1981:1038; Payne 1983:130140
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	no	Verb order shows the order of events.	Payne 1981:1038; Payne 1983:130140
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	yes	Adjectives and nouns are treated the same in almost all aspects in Asheninca--they take the same markings, positions, etc.	Payne 1981:1819
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	yes		Payne 1981:1738
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes		Payne 1981:1738
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no		Payne 1981:1738; Payne 1983:130140
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no		Payne 1981:1038; Payne 1983:130140
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		yes	a set of relative affixes	Mihas 2010:
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	yes		Mihas 2010
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	no		Payne 1982:2324
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes	Prefix vs. suffix placement depends on transitivity status of the verb.	Payne 1982:2324, 9096; Payne 1981:34
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes	Prefix vs. suffix placement depends on transitivity status of the verb.	Payne 1982:2324, 9096; Payne 1981:34
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no	They are verbal affixes instead.	Payne 1982:2324
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Payne 1982:2324; Payne 1981:34
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	yes		Payne 1983:1619, 2325, 9096
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes	Agents are prefixes to the verbs, while objects are suffixes.	Payne 1983:1619, 2325, 9096
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes	Agents are prefixes to the verbs, while objects are suffixes.	Payne 1983:1619, 2325, 9096
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	yes	Zero when the subject is not specified; not an obligatory rule.	Payne 1983:2025
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Payne 1983:2025
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no		Payne 1983:2025; Payne 1981
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	yes	same as S/A affixes	Mihas 2010:169
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	yes	The distinction is mostly apparent in 3rd person markings.	Payne 1981:13, 2234
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	yes		Payne 1981:3436
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no		Payne 1981:3436
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no		Payne 1981:3436
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes		Payne 1982:57
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	yes	These are dedicated morphemes that also correspond with tense (future vs. non-future).	Payne 1981:11,12
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	no		Payne 1982:57; Payne 1981:11,12
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes	impersonal passive	Payne 1981:40
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	yes		Payne 1982:56
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	yes	Can also add a simple patient.	Payne 1982:56
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Payne 1981:41; Payne 1983:11
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes		Payne 1981:41; Payne 1983:11
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Payne 1981:41; Payne 1983:11
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	no		Payne 1981:41; Payne 1983:11
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	yes		Mihas 2010: 104
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	yes	Verity: emphasizes authenticity.	Payne 1981:44
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	no	Only aspect markers according to Mihas	Mihas 2010:128
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no		Payne 1981:1113, Payne 1983:12
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no		Payne 1981:1113, Payne 1983:12
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		no		Payne 1983:12
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Payne 1983:12
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Payne 1983:12
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Payne 1983:12
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Payne 1981; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	yes	There are also morphemes for arrival, departure, and "receiving."	Payne 1983:16,100
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		no	Apparently, no evidentials	Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no info		Payne 1981; Payne 1982:910
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no info		Payne 1981; Payne 1982:910
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	no info		Payne 1981; Payne 1982:910
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no info		Payne 1981; Payne 1982:910
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no		Payne 1981:268
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		yes	Verb meaning "be able."	Payne 1981:268
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no		Payne 1981:268
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	yes	No evidence of a separate phoneme for this; best shown in future tense affixes.	Payne 1981; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no		Payne 1981; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no		Payne 1981; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	yes		Payne 1983:12
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	yes		Payne 1983:12
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	yes		Mihas 2010:146
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no		Payne 1981; Payne 1982; Payne 1983
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no	VSO word order	Mihas 2010:13
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no		Payne 1983:2325
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no		Payne 1982:1820
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	yes	OV is also acceptable in some circumstances.	Payne 1982:1820
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no		Payne 1982:1820
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Mihas 2010
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Payne 1981:1011
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	no		Payne 1983:49
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	yes		Mihas 2010:122
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	yes		Mihas 2010:143
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	no		Mihas 2010:143
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes		Payne 1983:130140
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no		Payne 1983:130140
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes		Payne 1983:51
Word Order	Noun-Num		no		Payne 1983:51
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes		Payne 1981:1011
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Payne 1981:1011
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no		Payne 1981:1011
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Payne 1981:1011
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Payne 1982:20

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