Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors

Ika

Family
Chibchan
Region
South America
ISO 639-3
arh
Location
10.70°, -73.64°
Notes
Features
Grammatical Data
Data Sources
Frank, Paul. 1985. A grammar of Ika. PhD Dissertation. University of Pennsylvania. Frank, Paul. 1989. The verb phrase in Ika I. Notes on Linguistics 45. 14-29. Dallas: SIL. Frank, Paul S. 1989. The verb phrase in Ika (part two). Notes on Linguistics 46. 12-29. Frank, Paul. 1990. Ika syntax. Dallas, SIL and University of Texas at Arlington.


Grammatical Data (226)
Category Grammatical Feature Grammatical Feature: Notes Feature Status Grammatical Notes Source Etymology Notes General Notes Phylogenetic Code
Phonology - Segmental Pre-/post-nasalized stops Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive. no Frank 1990:10
Phonology - Segmental Glottalized/ejective consonants Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative] no Frank 1990:10
Phonology - Segmental Palatalized stops Phonemic contrast no Frank 1990:10
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic vowel length Does the language have long and short vowels? no Frank 1990:11
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels no Frank 1990:11
Phonology - Segmental Complex onsets Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme yes A (voiced or voiceless) stop plus r Frank 1990:11
Phonology - Segmental No codas *(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained] no Frank 1990:11
Phonology - Segmental Word-final coda required Do all syllables end in a consonant? no Frank 1990:11
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive tones Note how many contrastive tones no more likely not Frank 1990:10-18
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive stress Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference? no Frank 1985:14
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments no info
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to? no info
Phonology - Suprasegmental Vowel harmony no Frank 1985:17-9
Morphology - General Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb) Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number] no Frank 1985:60-104
Morphology - General Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes Stem change, tone no Frank 1985:39-104
Morphology - General Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes) Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word yes Frank 1985:60-87
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing There are many more prefixes than suffixes no Frank 1990:4
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing There are many more suffixes than prefixes yes Frank 1990:4
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different no Frank 1990:4
Morphology - General Reduplication: full The full morpheme is reduplicated yes When an adjective is repeated it expresses a greater degree of the quality of it Frank 1985:43
Morphology - General Reduplication: partial Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive NN compounding Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV serialization (without compounding) Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV compounding Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap' no Frank 1990:46
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Auxiliary verb(s) There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs yes Frank 1990:46
Morphology - Incorporation Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process Verb contains nominal segment no However, it seems that some nouns have been incorporated into verbs of "putting" (Frank 1989:24-25 Frank 1985:60-104
Morphology - Incorporation Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns no Frank 1985:60-104
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classes/genders Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP yes The shape of the noun refered may have some morphosyntactic correlates as to the verb or normimal predicate it appears with Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Number of noun classes/genders Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders 6 long objects, flat objects, three-dimensional objects, liquids, containers, and objects with specialized holders Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders) Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain. no Frank 1989:39-59
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates Masculine, feminine, neuter no Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates no Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system Animate/inanimate, human/non-human no Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only no Frank 1985:34
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates no Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates yes Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification "Repeater" classifiers Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot" no Frank 1989:39-59
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals) Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals no Frank 1989:39-59
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.' no Frank 1989:39-59
Nominal Categories - Number Singular number may be marked on the noun Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups no Frank 1989:39-59
Nominal Categories - Number Plural affix on noun no Frank 1990:29
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun no Frank 1990:29
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by reduplication of noun no Frank 1990:29
Nominal Categories - Number Plural word/clitic no Frank 1990:29
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked on human or animate nouns only no Frank 1990:29
Nominal Categories - Number Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns no Frank 1990:26
Nominal Categories - Number Unique associative plural marker e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them' no more likely noy
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Definite or specific articles Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only no the demonstrative eima "this one" is used as a definiteness marker Frank 1990:33
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness no Frank 1990:33
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Indefinite or non-specific article or marker no The cardinal numeral inʔgui "one" is used as a marked or inefiniteness Frank 1990:33
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you yes However, the inclusive form seems to be rare. The exclusive form is the most frequent. Frank 1990:26
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound) no Frank 1989; Frank ?
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number) Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system 2 Frank 1985:35
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.) yes Pronouns are distinguished between deictic and anaphoric Frank 1985:35
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3sg pronouns no Frank 1985:34
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3pl pronouns no Frank 1985:34
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns no Frank 1985:34
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Formal/informal distinction in pronouns Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns no Frank 1985:34
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Reflexive pronouns e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix no However, the adjective kingui "same" is used after the subject to indicate reflexivity. This can be used with subject pronouns too. Frank ?:25
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Adpositions mark core NPs Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients yes Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: number of cases Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun 7 Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are no Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: symmetrical All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity) no Frank 1985:49
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: asymmetrical Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates yes Ergative case is dependent on the pragamtic status of the subject with respect to the object. The subject gets ergative case if it is less "given" than the object Frank 1985:49
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: suffix or postpositional clitic yes postposition Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: prefix or prepositional clitic no Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: infix or inpositional clitic no Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: stem change no Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: tone no Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: comitative = instrumental Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument' yes Frank 1985:50
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-2 At least some part of the system involves base-2 no Frank 1990:27
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-5 At least some part of the system involves base-5 no Frank 1990:27
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-10 At least some part of the system involves base-10 yes Frank 1990:27
Nominal Categories - Numerals Other base (specify) 4, 20, etc. no Frank 1990:27
Nominal Categories - Numerals Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5 e.g. two = 'eye-quantity' no But based on the list of 1-10 numbers, it seems that there is not etymological transparency.
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 5 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no Frank 1985:36
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 10 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no Frank 1985:36
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival no Frank 1985:25-6, 46-59
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Person inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival no Frank 1985:25-6, 46-59
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N alienable/inalienable? yes These pronominal prefixes are the same as the object markers on the verb. These possessive are only used with kin terms Frank 1989:22
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N alienable/inalienable? no Frank 1989:22
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent e.g. 'the boy-'s dog' yes The possessive marker is the postposition /zei/ Frank 1985:55
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head e.g. 'the boy his-dog' no Frank 1985:55
Nominal Syntax - Possession Possessive classifiers There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities no Frank 1985:39-59
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of inalienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no Frank 1985:55-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of alienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no Frank 1985:55-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form no Frank 1985:55-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of kin terms 'my-father' but *father yes This is marked by person prefixes on the noun. However, when the noun is used as vocative no personal preffix is added. Frank 1990:19
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal) 'my-leg' but *leg no Frank 1985:55-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man) no Frank 1985:55-7
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Underived adjectives There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes yes Frank 1990:19-20
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco no Based on the examples Frank 1990:19-20
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival) There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb yes Frank 1990:19
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer) There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb yes Frank 1990:19
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song) There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb no info
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive verbalizing morphology There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective no info
Nominal Syntax - Other NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently 'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary' no info
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated past marker(s) Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere no Aspect is marked on the verb rather than tense.Ika distinguishes perfective and imperfective aspect. When the verb occurs in its bare form in a sentence, it expresses past tense Frank 1990:56-58
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. distant vs. recent past no Frank 1990:56-58
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. imminent vs. distant future yes There are at least two future tense markers: /-ngua/ for future simple and /-iwa/ for inmediate future Frank 1990:61
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated future or non-past marker(s) yes Frank 1990:61
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: prefix no Frank 1990:56-58
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: suffix yes Frank 1990:56-58
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut no Frank 1990:56-58
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect suppletion no
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood no A verbal periphrastic strategy is used where the verb occurs uninflected and it is followed by a stressed auxiliary verb Frank 1990:86-7
Verbal Categories - Mood Polite imperative morpheme There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language) no Frank 1985:117-120
Verbal Categories - Mood Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses no Frank 1985:118-122
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative) as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing' yes Frank 1990:88
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: affix on verb Inflectional marking of capacity to do something yes This is a verbal suufix Frank 1990:59-60
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: verbal construction no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: other marking no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: affix on verb Modal expressing hypothesis no Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: verbal construction no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: other marking no
Verbal Categories - Mood Marking of expected/unexpected action or result There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected no Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal frustrative Modal expressing frustration ("in vain") no Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal habitual Modal expressing habituality no Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Mood Apprehensive construction There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens' yes This is a prohibitive verbal suffix which is distinc from a negative imperative in which it is more than of an warning
Verbal Categories - Mood Reality status marking on verbs There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events' no
Verbal Categories - Mood Affect markers (positive/negative) Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative no
Verbal Categories - Directionals Directional elements affixed to the verb There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc. no Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized visual Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker yes This is a verbal suffix or it can also be attached to the auxiliary verb Frank 1990:77
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized nonvisual Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt) no Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized inferential Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker. no Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized reportive Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly' no Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized quotative Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse yes This evidential verbal suffix expresses certainty Frank 1990:77
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Other evidential Any other evidential values not represented above yes Frank 1989:19
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic yes Frank 1990:77
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: part of tense system Includes portmanteau morphs no Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: separate particle no Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: modal morpheme no Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Verbal number Verbal number suppletion no Frank 1989:21
Verbal Categories - Other Social interaction markers Note the type of interaction no
Word Order No fixed basic constituent order no Frank 1990:3
Word Order VS in intransitive clauses Verb precedes subject no
Word Order VS in transitive clauses no Frank 1990:3
Word Order VO in transitive clauses Verb precedes object no Frank 1990:3
Word Order OS in transitive clauses Object precedes subject no Frank 1990:3
Word Order Preposition-Noun no Frank 1990:3
Word Order Noun-Postposition or case suffix yes Frank 1990:3
Word Order Gen-Noun Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book) yes This order is preffered and more frequent. Frank 1990:4
Word Order Noun-Gen Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John') yes Frank 1990:4
Word Order Adj-Noun Adjective precedes the noun no Frank 1990:3
Word Order Noun-Adj Adjective follows the noun yes Frank 1990:3
Word Order Dem-Noun yes Frank 1985:44
Word Order Noun-Dem no more likely not based on the examples Frank 1985:44
Word Order Num-Noun yes indefinite construction Frank 1985:41
Word Order Noun-Num yes definite construction Frank 1985:41
Word Order Noun-Rel Relative clause follows noun that it modifies yes Frank 1990:5
Word Order Rel-Noun Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies yes But this order is rare Frank 1990:5
Word Order Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative) e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away') yes This seems to be the most frequent strategy for relativization Frank 1990:99-100
Word Order Relative clause is correlative or adjoined e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat' no Frank 1985:130-3
Word Order Question word is clause initial 'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause yes Frank 1985:112
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects no Frank 1985:49
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked no Frank 1990:8-10
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker yes But the marking of the A relation is optional and is restricted to contexts in which A appears contigous to the verb and not in its canonical position before the object. Frank 1990:9-10
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers no Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep) no Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative no Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative no No. More likely similar to that of nouns. Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no info More likely yes Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite no More likely not Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive no More likely not Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs yes This is the predominant pattern. Frank 1990:8
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other yes However, this is highly restricted. There are few intransitive roots (mainly "experiential") which take the same person pronoun as those used for objects in transitive verbs. Frank 1990:8-9
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive yes But only a small set of intransitive verbs shows this pattern Frank 1985:11
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3) no Frank 1985:9-10, 60-104
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: split More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc. yes Frank 1985:11
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects yes Frank 1990:25
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option) yes Frank 1990:7-8
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option) yes Not sure why some subject pronouns appear as prefixes and others as suffixes. This may be related to the particular caracteristics of each subject suffix individually. Frank 1990.7-8
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. no Frank 1990:25
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects no Frank 1990:25
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking on intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes yes Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers yes Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take object (P) markers yes Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects 3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system yes Except for third person plural which are optionally marked on the verb Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects 3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system yes Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Number can be marked separately from person on the verb Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately no Frank 1989:21
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes yes The set of verbal object pronouns is used instead of the verbal subject pronouns Frank 1989:22
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Gender distinguished in verbal person markers For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent no Frank 1985:67-71
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: indirect object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently yes Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: double object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives no Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: secondary object In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently yes But only when the beneficiary/gol NP is human which outranks the object in animacy Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal. yes This is the same verbal suffix used for the reciprocal Frank 1990:71
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reflexive: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive. yes Frank 1990:71
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb yes Frank 1990:71
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Passive Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Antipassive Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Other intransitivizing morphology There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: benefactive Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb yes It also encodes malefactive meaning Frank ?:24
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: other Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb yes This suffix allows the verb to take an extra argument which in many case is implicit but cannot appear cross-referenced on the verb. In other cases it adds the possessor of a possessive clause as a verbal argument Frank 1985:93-96
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: prefix Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb no Frank 1990:66
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: suffix Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb yes Frank 1990:66
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix yes There´s verbal stem change as a strategy for forming causative. However, what the author refers here as causative may be described as jussive "let hm go in"m for instance. Frank 1990:66
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: serial verb or analytical construction Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization yes This construction involves the verb "to cause" guaʔsa Frank 1990:66
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy' Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.' no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated sociative Indicates that causer participates in event no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence) There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency yes Frank 1990:68
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a preposed element Clausal negator is a preposed element no Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a postposed element Clausal negator is a postposed element yes Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: affix Negatives: affix yes This is a verbal suffix Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: particle Negatives: particle no Frank 1985:120-121
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: auxiliary verb Negatives: auxiliary verb no Frank 1985:120-121
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: double Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas' no Frank 1985:120-121
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist' no info
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative expression 'I don't know' Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase no info
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: interrogative particle Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle yes This particle occurs sentence-finally Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: verb morphology Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology no Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: word order Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) no Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: intonation only Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only no Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Content questions: word order differs from declaratives Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.) no Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: verbal Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position yes Frank 1990:619-20
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: nominal Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all) no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head) no info more likely not Frank 19885:130-3
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses. no info more likely not Frank 19885:130-3
Simple Clauses - Predication Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause no Frank 19885:130-3
Simple Clauses - Predication Relativizer is a verbal affix no There is no relativizer Frank 1985:130-3
Simple Clauses - Predication Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes) no Frank 1985:130-3
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions Grammaticalized verbal desiderative Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it) no Frank 1985:60-104
Simple Clauses - Other Clause chaining Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause. yes Frank 1990:91
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked switch-reference system There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined yes Frank 1990:91-5
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence yes Frank 1990:91-5