Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Ika

Family: Chibchan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: arh
Location: 10.70°, -73.64°
Notes
Features: Grammatical Data

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Data Sources: Frank, Paul. 1985. A grammar of Ika. PhD Dissertation. University of Pennsylvania. Frank, Paul. 1989. The verb phrase in Ika I. Notes on Linguistics 45. 14-29. Dallas: SIL. Frank, Paul S. 1989. The verb phrase in Ika (part two). Notes on Linguistics 46. 12-29. Frank, Paul. 1990. Ika syntax. Dallas, SIL and University of Texas at Arlington.

Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no		Frank 1990:46
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes		Frank 1990:46
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no		Frank 1985:60-104
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Frank 1985:39-104
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes		Frank 1985:60-87
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Frank 1990:4
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Frank 1990:4
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Frank 1990:4
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	yes	When an adjective is repeated it expresses a greater degree of the quality of it	Frank 1985:43
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	no info
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	no	However, it seems that some nouns have been incorporated into verbs of "putting" (Frank 1989:24-25	Frank 1985:60-104
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no		Frank 1985:60-104
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	yes		Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	7		Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no		Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	no		Frank 1985:49
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	yes	Ergative case is dependent on the pragamtic status of the subject with respect to the object. The subject gets ergative case if it is less "given" than the object	Frank 1985:49
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes	postposition	Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Frank 1985:46
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	yes		Frank 1985:50
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no	the demonstrative eima "this one" is used as a definiteness marker	Frank 1990:33
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no		Frank 1990:33
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no	The cardinal numeral inʔgui "one" is used as a marked or inefiniteness	Frank 1990:33
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	yes	However, the inclusive form seems to be rare. The exclusive form is the most frequent.	Frank 1990:26
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Frank 1989; Frank ?
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	2		Frank 1985:35
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		yes	Pronouns are distinguished between deictic and anaphoric	Frank 1985:35
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes	The shape of the noun refered may have some morphosyntactic correlates as to the verb or normimal predicate it appears with	Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	6	long objects, flat objects, three-dimensional objects, liquids, containers, and objects with specialized holders	Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	no		Frank 1989:39-59
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	no		Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	no		Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	no		Frank 1985:34
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no		Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes		Frank 1989:22
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no		Frank 1989:39-59
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no		Frank 1989:39-59
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	no		Frank 1989:39-59
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no		Frank 1989:39-59
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		no		Frank 1990:29
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Frank 1990:29
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Frank 1990:29
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Frank 1990:29
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no		Frank 1990:29
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no		Frank 1990:26
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no	more likely noy
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no		Frank 1990:27
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	no		Frank 1990:27
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	yes		Frank 1990:27
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no		Frank 1990:27
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no	But based on the list of 1-10 numbers, it seems that there is not etymological transparency.
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Frank 1985:36
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Frank 1985:36
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no		Frank 1985:25-6, 46-59
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no		Frank 1985:25-6, 46-59
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		no		Frank 1985:34
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no		Frank 1985:34
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Frank 1985:34
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Frank 1985:34
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no	However, the adjective kingui "same" is used after the subject to indicate reflexivity. This can be used with subject pronouns too.	Frank ?:25
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	yes		Frank 1990:19-20
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	no	Based on the examples	Frank 1990:19-20
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	yes		Frank 1990:19
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes		Frank 1990:19
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	no info
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	no info
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes	These pronominal prefixes are the same as the object markers on the verb. These possessive are only used with kin terms	Frank 1989:22
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Frank 1989:22
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	yes	The possessive marker is the postposition /zei/	Frank 1985:55
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	no		Frank 1985:55
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no		Frank 1985:39-59
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Frank 1985:55-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Frank 1985:55-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no		Frank 1985:55-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	yes	This is marked by person prefixes on the noun. However, when the noun is used as vocative no personal preffix is added.	Frank 1990:19
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	no		Frank 1985:55-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Frank 1985:55-7
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no		Frank 1990:10
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Frank 1990:10
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no		Frank 1990:10
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	no		Frank 1990:11
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Frank 1990:11
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	yes	A (voiced or voiceless) stop plus r	Frank 1990:11
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	no		Frank 1990:11
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Frank 1990:11
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no	more likely not	Frank 1990:10-18
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no		Frank 1985:14
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no info
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no info
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no		Frank 1985:17-9
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	no		Frank 1985:49
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Frank 1990:8-10
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	yes	But the marking of the A relation is optional and is restricted to contexts in which A appears contigous to the verb and not in its canonical position before the object.	Frank 1990:9-10
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		no		Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no	No. More likely similar to that of nouns.	Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no info	More likely yes	Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no	More likely not	Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no	More likely not	Frank 1985:39-59
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	yes	This is the predominant pattern.	Frank 1990:8
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	yes	However, this is highly restricted. There are few intransitive roots (mainly "experiential") which take the same person pronoun as those used for objects in transitive verbs.	Frank 1990:8-9
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		yes	But only a small set of intransitive verbs shows this pattern	Frank 1985:11
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Frank 1985:9-10, 60-104
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	yes		Frank 1985:11
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	no		Frank 1985:60-104
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	yes	This particle occurs sentence-finally	Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	no		Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no		Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	no		Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	yes		Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	yes	This is a verbal suffix	Frank 1990:6
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	no		Frank 1985:120-121
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Frank 1985:120-121
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Frank 1985:120-121
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no info
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no info
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	yes		Frank 1990:91
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	yes		Frank 1990:91-5
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	yes		Frank 1990:91-5
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	yes		Frank 1990:619-20
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no info
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	no info
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	no info	more likely not	Frank 19885:130-3
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no info	more likely not	Frank 19885:130-3
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no		Frank 19885:130-3
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		no	There is no relativizer	Frank 1985:130-3
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no		Frank 1985:130-3
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes		Frank 1990:25
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes		Frank 1990:7-8
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes	Not sure why some subject pronouns appear as prefixes and others as suffixes. This may be related to the particular caracteristics of each subject suffix individually.	Frank 1990.7-8
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Frank 1990:25
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Frank 1990:25
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	yes		Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes		Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes		Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	yes	Except for third person plural which are optionally marked on the verb	Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	yes		Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no		Frank 1989:21
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	yes	The set of verbal object pronouns is used instead of the verbal subject pronouns	Frank 1989:22
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	no		Frank 1985:67-71
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	yes		Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no		Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	yes	But only when the beneficiary/gol NP is human which outranks the object in animacy	Frank 1989:20
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes	This is the same verbal suffix used for the reciprocal	Frank 1990:71
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	yes		Frank 1990:71
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	yes		Frank 1990:71
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	yes	It also encodes malefactive meaning	Frank ?:24
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	yes	This suffix allows the verb to take an extra argument which in many case is implicit but cannot appear cross-referenced on the verb. In other cases it adds the possessor of a possessive clause as a verbal argument	Frank 1985:93-96
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Frank 1990:66
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes		Frank 1990:66
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	yes	There´s verbal stem change as a strategy for forming causative. However, what the author refers here as causative may be described as jussive "let hm go in"m for instance.	Frank 1990:66
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	yes	This construction involves the verb "to cause" guaʔsa	Frank 1990:66
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	yes		Frank 1990:68
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	no	Aspect is marked on the verb rather than tense.Ika distinguishes perfective and imperfective aspect. When the verb occurs in its bare form in a sentence, it expresses past tense	Frank 1990:56-58
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no		Frank 1990:56-58
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	yes	There are at least two future tense markers: /-ngua/ for future simple and /-iwa/ for inmediate future	Frank 1990:61
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		yes		Frank 1990:61
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Frank 1990:56-58
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Frank 1990:56-58
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Frank 1990:56-58
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	no		Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	yes	This is a verbal suffix or it can also be attached to the auxiliary verb	Frank 1990:77
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no		Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no		Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	no		Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	yes	This evidential verbal suffix expresses certainty	Frank 1990:77
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	yes		Frank 1989:19
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		yes		Frank 1990:77
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no		Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no	A verbal periphrastic strategy is used where the verb occurs uninflected and it is followed by a stressed auxiliary verb	Frank 1990:86-7
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no		Frank 1985:117-120
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	no		Frank 1985:118-122
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	yes		Frank 1990:88
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	yes	This is a verbal suufix	Frank 1990:59-60
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no info
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no info
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no		Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no info
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no		Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	no		Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	no		Frank 1985:60-104
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	yes	This is a prohibitive verbal suffix which is distinc from a negative imperative in which it is more than of an warning
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no		Frank 1989:21
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no		Frank 1990:3
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no		Frank 1990:3
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	no		Frank 1990:3
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no		Frank 1990:3
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Frank 1990:3
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Frank 1990:3
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes	This order is preffered and more frequent.	Frank 1990:4
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	yes		Frank 1990:4
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	no		Frank 1990:3
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	yes		Frank 1990:3
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes		Frank 1985:44
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no	more likely not based on the examples	Frank 1985:44
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes	indefinite construction	Frank 1985:41
Word Order	Noun-Num		yes	definite construction	Frank 1985:41
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes		Frank 1990:5
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	yes	But this order is rare	Frank 1990:5
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	yes	This seems to be the most frequent strategy for relativization	Frank 1990:99-100
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Frank 1985:130-3
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Frank 1985:112


Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - General
Morphology - Incorporation
Morphology - Incorporation
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Number
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Numerals
Nominal Categories - Other nominal
Nominal Categories - Other nominal
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives
Nominal Syntax - Derivation
Nominal Syntax - Derivation
Nominal Syntax - Derivation
Nominal Syntax - Derivation
Nominal Syntax - Other
Nominal Syntax - Possession
Nominal Syntax - Possession
Nominal Syntax - Possession
Nominal Syntax - Possession
Nominal Syntax - Possession
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Segmental
Phonology - Suprasegmental
Phonology - Suprasegmental
Phonology - Suprasegmental
Phonology - Suprasegmental
Phonology - Suprasegmental
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Alignment
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Negation
Simple Clauses - Other
Simple Clauses - Other
Simple Clauses - Other
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Predication
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense
Verbal Categories - Directionals
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Mood
Verbal Categories - Other
Verbal Categories - Verbal number
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order
Word Order

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