Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Nanti

Family: Arawakan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: cox
Location: -12.10°, -72.35°
Notes
Features: Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Grammatical Data

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Data Sources: Michael, Lev David. 2008. Nanti evidential practice: Language, knowledge, and social action in an Amazonian society. University of Texas at Austin. Austin: UMI.

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (1)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna		Bactris gasipaes	kuri	kuri	Bactris gasipaes														Michael 2008: 337


peach palm, pejibaye palm

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Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	no		Michael, 2008. p. 293
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no		Michael, 2008
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	no		Michael, 2008
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	yes	At least one light verb--kaNt 'do'	Michael, 2008. p. 395, 436
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	no		Michael, 2008
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no		Michael, 2008. p. 249
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Michael, 2008
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes		Michael, 2008
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Michael, 2008. p. 248
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 248
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Michael, 2008. p. 248
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	no		Michael, 2008
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	no	Syllables can be reduplicated in order to meet metrical restraints in kariNtaa poetry, but no indication that reduplication serves any “grammatical” purpose.	Michael, 2008
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	yes	Only inalienably-possessed nouns, and, of those, only “part” terms--no nouns for manufactured items (e.g., “bow.”). Happens with verbs, adjectives and numerals.	Michael, 2008. p. 327
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no		Michael, 2008. p. 327-331
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	no	Core arguments marked on verb or with free pronouns/nouns.	Michael, 2008. p. 340-343
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	1		Michael, 2008. p. 354-355
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	yes	There is a locative case marker, but other semantically oblique arguments use an “applicative” marker on the verb.	Michael, 2008. p. 340-355
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	no	There is only one case marker, which is a locative marker, so by default most of the marked nouns would be inanimates. It's unclear what happens with animates.	Michael, 2008. p. 354-355
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no		Michael, 2008. p. 354-355
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Michael, 2008. p. 354-355
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Michael, 2008. p. 354-355
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Michael, 2008. p. 354-355
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Michael, 2008. p. 354-355
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Michael, 2008. p. 354-355
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	n/a	No comitative or instrumental case. The verbal applicative marker for instrumental does not have a comitative reading.	Michael, 2008. p. 285, 354-355
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	yes	“Specific” articles, use the same form as demonstratives.	Michael, 2008. p. 306
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no	They use the same phonological form.	Michael, 2008. p. 304-306
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no		Michael, 2008. p. 304-309
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	yes	1st person singular and 1st person plural exclusive take same form, 1st person plural inclusive is distinct.	Michael, 2008. p. 348
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		yes	1st person singular and 1st person plural exclusive take same form, 1st person plural inclusive is distinct.	Michael, 2008. p. 267
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	3	speaker and addressee proximal, speaker proximal, and speaker distal	Michael, 2008. p. 304-305
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no		Michael, 2008. p. 304-305
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 294
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	2		Michael, 2008. p. 294
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 332
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 294
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no	All animates are “feminine.”	Michael, 2008. p. 294
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	yes	Animacy agreement is marked on numerals, some adjectives, some indefinite quantifiers, and existential verb. On verbal person markers and nominal possessive markers, all inanimates belong to the “feminine” class.	Michael, 2008. p. 294-295
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	no		Michael, 2008. p. 295
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no	No mention of or examples of animates using shape classifiers.	Michael, 2008. p. 332-340
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes		Michael, 2008. p. 332
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no	No mention in discussion of classifier system.	Michael, 2008. p. 332-340
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no	Numerals use classifiers, but they are the same classfiers that are used with verbs, adjectives and nouns.	Michael, 2008. p. 332
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	no	Classifiers can be used with verbs, but they classify the notional subject of an intransitive or the notional object of a transitive.	Michael, 2008. p. 332
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no	Two plural suffixes, no singular suffix described.	Michael, 2008. p. 297
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes		Michael, 2008. p. 297
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Michael, 2008. p. 297
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Michael, 2008. p. 297
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Michael, 2008. p. 297
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no	Example 6.143 shows plural marker with inanimate.	Michael, 2008. p. 297
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 297
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no		Michael, 2008. p. 297
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no		Michael, 2008. p. 311-312
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	no		Michael, 2008. p. 311-312
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no		Michael, 2008. p. 311-312
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no		Michael, 2008. p. 311-312
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no info		Michael, 2008. p. 311-312
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	yes	Numerals for “one” and “two”	Michael, 2008. p. 311-312
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 311-312
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no	“Roots” can be either adjectival or verbal. When they are “verbal,” they take aspect inflection, but when they are adjectival, they don't. When adjectival predication is used, a copular form is used.	Michael, 2008. p. 310-313
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no	“Roots” can be either adjectival or verbal. When they are “verbal,” they take person markers, but when they are adjectival, they don't. When adjectival predication is used, a copular form is used.	Michael, 2008. p. 310-313
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		yes		Michael 2008. p. 348
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		yes		Michael, 2008. p. 348
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Michael, 2008. p. 348
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Michael, 2008. p. 348
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	yes	The verbal person markers + -kiro are used to make reflexive pronouns. They don't have plural forms and can be in either topic or argument position.	Michael, 2008. p. 377
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 310-311
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	no	Derived adjectives do not exhibit animacy or gender agreement. Among derived adjectives, gender and animacy agreement is rare.	Michael, 2008. p. 311-312
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	no		Michael, 2008. p. 303-304
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes	There is one nominalizing morpheme, -rira. This is most often an agentive nominalization, but can also be used for other types of nominalizations.	Michael, 2008. p. 303-304
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	no		Michael, 2008. p. 303-304
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	no		Michael, 2008. p. 247-290
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no	Nanti has both NP coordination but no overt comitative morphology (although there is an influential causative, -akag).	Michael, 2008. p. 280-284, 371
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 297-299
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Michael, 2008. p. 297-299
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no		Michael, 2008. p. 297-299
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 297-299
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no		Michael, 2008. p. 332-338
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no	Inalienable nouns must always occur with a possessive prefix.	Michael, 2008. p. 298
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	yes	When possessed, alienable nouns take a possessive prefix and an “alienable possession suffix.”	Michael, 2008. p. 298-300
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no	The -tsi marker in other Arawak languages has been lost. The first-person plural inclusive marker /a-/ is now used to function as an impersonal possessor.	Michael, 2008. p. 300-301
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 299
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 299
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Michael, 2008. p. 297-301
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no		Michael, Lev. 2008. Nanti Evidential Practice: Language, knowledge and social action in an Amazonian society. Austin, TX: University of Texas at Austin dissertation. p. 221
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Michael, 2008. p. 221
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 221
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 221
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Michael, 2008. p. 225
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Michael, 2008. p. 225
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 240
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Michael, 2008. p. 221
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no		Michael, 2008
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no		Michael, 2008. p. 231-236
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no		Michael, 2008. p. 221
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no	/h/ triggers nasalization on preceding vowel.	Michael, 2008. p. 231
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no		Michael, 2008
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	n/a	Grammatical relations between nouns are marked on verbs, and not on nouns themselves. Only one (locative) case marker.	Michael, 2008. p. 340
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	n/a		Michael, 2008. p. 340
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	n/a		Michael, 2008. p. 340
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	n/a		Michael, 2008. p. 340
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	n/a		Michael, 2008. p. 340
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		n/a	Only one case marker (locative), so no marking of core arguments on pronouns. Grammatical relations are marked on the verb.	Michael, 2008. p. 340
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		n/a		Michael, 2008. p. 340
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	n/a		Michael, 2008. p. 340
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		n/a		Michael, 2008. p. 340
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		n/a		Michael, 2008. p. 340
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	yes	Nanti is primarily nominative-accusative, although there are traces of fluid-S marking.	Michael, 2008. p. 343
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Michael, 2008. p. 343
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Michael, 2008. p. 343
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Michael, 2008. p. 343
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no		Michael, 2008. p. 343
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	no		Michael, 2008. p. 247-290
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	no		Michael, 2008. p. 389-390
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Michael, 2008. p. 389-390
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no	NP distribution in polar interrogatives is reduced, but not to the extent that they unambiguously identify an interrogative.	Michael, 2008. p. 389-390
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 389-390
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	yes	The content word is preposed.	Michael, 2008. p. 391
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	yes	Clausal negators are preposed, but show up to the left of the focus position (they are the first element), and to the right of the topic position (they are the second element).	Michael, 2008. p. 379-380
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no		Michael, 2008. p. 379-380
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	no
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	yes	A clitic that attaches phonologically to whatever is to the right.	Michael, 2008. p. 379-380
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no	There is a negative existential verb, but this isn't a general negation strategy.	Michael, 2008. p. 378-385
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Michael, 2008. p. 378-385
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		yes	Negative existential, can also be used with a clausal complement to indicate negation of the complement in a specific location.	Michael, 2008. p. 382-383
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no		Michael, 2008. p. 378-385
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no	There are clause linking strategies, but verbs in both clauses have required morphology.	Michael, 2008. p. 427-440
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no		Michael, 2008. p. 427-440
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	yes	Temporal succession is marked with the particle iNpogini or iNpo. Brief overlap is indicated with the subordinator =ra, and prolonged overlap with a particle tyara, `when.'	Michael, 2008. p. 429-432
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	no	Many adjective roots are also verbal roots, so the same concept can be expressed with a verb or an adjective. However, when an adjective is used predicatively, a copular verb is used.	Michael, 2008. p. 312-313
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	yes	Many adjective roots are also verbal roots, so the same concept can be expressed with a verb or an adjective. However, when an adjective is used predicatively, a copular verb is used. The copula is also used with nouns in predicative position.	Michael, 2008. p. 292, 312-313
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	no	Not indication of this among discussion of copular verb.	Michael, 2008. p. 292, 312-313
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes	There is a subtype of ranked relative clauses that can be headless.	Michael, 2008. p. 410
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no	Although headless clauses do exist, they only pop up as a subtype of ranked relative clauses, and only when the referent is easily recoverable.	Michael, 2008. p. 410
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no		Michael, 2008. p. 402-414
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		yes	There are three types of relative clauses. One of the three subtypes, unranked relative clauses, uses a verbal morpheme as a relativizer.	Michael, 2008. p. 402
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	yes	Ranked relative clauses use the second position clitic =rira, this is also a nominalization strategy.	Michael, 2008. p. 303, 402
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	no	There are free pronouns that can be used, but these are focused pronouns that occur along with a verbal person-marking proclitic, whereas non-focused referential NPs and person-marking on the verb are in complementary distribution.	Michael, 2008. p. 345
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes	Proclitic, in complementary distribution with non-focused referential NPs.	Michael, 2008. p. 345
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no	Person markers are pro-clitics.	Michael, 2008. p. 345
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no	Person markers are clitics, but always attach to verb.	Michael, 2008. p. 342-344
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Michael, 2008. p. 342-344
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 267
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 267
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 267
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Michael, 2008. p. 267
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Michael, 2008. p. 267
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 267-268
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 267, 299
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	yes	Third-person subject and object markers distinguish masculine and non-masculine.	Michael, 2008. p. 267
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	no		Michael, 2008. p. 267
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no	Normally, only one object is marked on the verb. There's no discussion of whether it's normally the theme or recipient. However, in cases of “pragmatic obliques,” the theme/patient gets the marker '=ni,' while the pragmatic oblique gets that regular third	Michael, 2008. p. 267
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	yes	With ditransitives, only one non-subject argument is marked on the verb--the recipient or beneficiary. If both the recipient and the beneficiary are third-person, then both can be marked on the verb, but the theme/patient gets a different marker and the r	Michael, 2008. p. 367-368
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes	Requires obligatory plural number marking.	Michael, 2008. p. 278
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	no	Reflexives are formed with a reflexive pronoun.	Michael, 2008. p. 278
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	no		Michael, 2008. p. 278
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 276
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no		Michael, 2008. p. 276-279
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	yes	There is a “characteristic” suffix that reduces the valency of transitives, but not intransitives. It carries the meaning that the action is habitual or characteristic of the subject.	Michael, 2008. p. 277-278
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	no		Michael, 2008. p. 285-289
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	yes	There are four other applicative constructions in Nanti:	Michael, 2008. p. 285-289
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	yes	There are four causative prefixes.	Michael, 2008. p. 279
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes	There is also a causative suffix in Nanti.	Michael, 2008. p. 279
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Michael, 2008. p. 279
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	no		Michael, 2008. p. 279
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	yes	There is an “influential” causative, which has the meaning that the causer made the causee carry out the action by indirect or distinctly non-coercive actions.	Michael, 2008. p. 284
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no		Michael, 2008. p. 279
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no		Michael, 2008. p. 279-289
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	no		Michael, 2008. p. 249
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no		Michael, 2008. p. 249
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no		Michael, 2008. p. 249
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		no		Michael, 2008. p. 249
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Michael, 2008. p. 249
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Michael, 2008. p. 249
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Michael, 2008. p. 249
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Michael, 2008. p. 249
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 249
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no		Michael, 2008. p. 323-326
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no		Michael, 2008. p. 323-326
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	yes	Second-position clitic.	Michael, 2008. p. 325
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	yes	Not a verbal morpheme but a clitic that is inflected for person (but not aspect/reality status). It's historically derived from the root for 'hear,' kem.	Michael, 2008. p. 324
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	yes	A clitic that is inflected for person (but not aspect/reality status), that is historically derived from the root for 'say,' kaNt. It's homophonous with the inferential clitic, but structurally distinct.	Michael, 2008. p. 323-324
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no		Michael, 2008. p. 323-326
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		yes	The reportive and quotative are clitics that take their own person marking. The inferential evidential is a second-position clitic.	Michael, 2008. p. 323-326
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no		Michael, 2008. p. 323-326
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		yes	The reportive and quotative are clitics that take their own person marking. The inferential evidential is a second-position clitic.	Michael, 2008. p. 323-326
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Michael, 2008. p. 323-326
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no	Imperatives are formed using irrealis markers and omitting the subject person marker or free pronoun.	Michael, 2008. p. 399
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	yes	The polite imperative is differentiated from regular imperatives by the use of a person marker.	Michael, 2008. p. 400-401
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	yes	Positive polarity imperatives can use either regular or polite imperative, negative polarity must use polite imperative form, without irrealis marking.	Michael, 2008. p. 400-401
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no		Michael, 2008. p. 399-401
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no		Michael, 2008. p. 247-289
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no info		Michael, 2008
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no info		Michael, 2008
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 273-274
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no info		Michael, 2008
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no info		Michael, 2008
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no		Michael, 2008. p. 247-289
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 275
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	yes	In a section on “rare” morphemes, looks like it's either being lost or in the first stages of being borrowed.	Michael, 2008. p. 266
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no		Michael, 2008. p. 247-289
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 249
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	yes	There are desirable and undesirable extremals. Both of these mean that the action or state to which the morpheme is affixed is realized to an extreme degree, but the “undesirable extremal” -uma has the idea that the speaker has a negative attitude toward	Michael, 2008. p. 263-265
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no	There are several different types of causative that make this type of distinction, but no morphemes that indicate solely social interaction?	Michael, 2008.
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no		Michael, 2008
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no		Michael, 2008. p. 345
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no	Non-focused, referential NPs are found before the verb when they are subjects and after the verb when they are objects, but these are uncommon. There are no examples of a transitive clause with two free referential NPs.	Michael, 2008. p. 345
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no	Non-focused, referential NPs are found before the verb when they are subjects and after the verb when they are objects, but these are uncommon. There are no examples of a transitive clause with two free referential NPs.	Michael, 2008. p. 345
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	yes	Non-focused, referential NPs are found before the verb when they are subjects and after the verb when they are objects, but these are uncommon. There are no examples of a transitive clause with two free referential NPs.	Michael, 2008. p. 345
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no	Non-focused, referential NPs are found before the verb when they are subjects and after the verb when they are objects, but these are uncommon. There are no examples of a transitive clause with two free referential NPs.	Michael, 2008. p. 345
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no	No prepositions or postpositions.	Michael, 2008. p. 369
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		no	No prepositions or postpositions.	Michael, 2008. p. 369
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes	Nanti noun phrases are “right-headed,” although a genitive isn't specifically mentioned as a possible modifer in an NP.	Michael, 2008. p. 369
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no		Michael, 2008. p. 369
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	yes	Nanti noun phrases are “right-headed.”	Michael, 2008. p. 369
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	no		Michael, 2008. p. 369
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes	Nanti noun phrases are “right-headed.”	Michael, 2008. p. 369
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no		Michael, 2008. p. 369
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes	Nanti noun phrases are “right-headed.”	Michael, 2008. p. 369
Word Order	Noun-Num		no		Michael, 2008. p. 369
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes	There are several types and several types of relative clauses. It looks like it is most common for relative clauses to appear postnominally, and there are some subtypes that can only appear postnominally. Internally-headed relative clauses occur, but it l	Michael, 2008. p. 402-414
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Michael, 2008. p. 402-414
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no	There are several types and several types of relative clauses. It looks like it is most common for relative clauses to appear postnominally, and there are some subtypes that can only appear postnominally. Internally-headed relative clauses occur, but it l	Michael, 2008. p. 402-414
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	yes	There are correlative subtypes of each of the three types of relative clauses.	Michael, 2008. p. 402-414
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Michael, 2008. p. 391

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