Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Yanesha'

Family: Arawakan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: ame
Location: -10.55°, -75.31°
Notes
Features: Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Grammatical Data

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Data Sources: Duff-Tripp, Martha. 1997. Gramática del idioma yaneshaʼ (amuesha). Peru: ILV. Duff-Tripp, Martha. 1998. Diccionario yanesha' (amuesha)-castellano. Lima: Instituto Lingüístico de Verano. Fast, Peter W. 1953. Amuesha (Arawak) phonemes. International Journal of American Linguistics 19: 191-94.

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (1)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna		Bactris gasipaes	poporr, cororr	popoʐ , coroʐ 'especie de pijuayo de color amarillo' (Duff-Tripp 1998:145)	fruto de pijuayo (una palmera), fruto de chonta.														Duff-Tripp 1998: 300																				IPA equivalent of grapheme <rr> not fully clear


peach palm, pejibaye palm

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Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:38
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no info	more likely not	Duff-Tripp
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	no info	more likely not	Duff-Tripp
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no info	more likely not	Duff-Tripp
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:120-4
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	yes	person and number are combined in verbal affixes	Duff-Tripp 1997:71-9
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:23-124
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:69-124
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:22-124
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:22-124
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:22-124
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	yes	This occurs with verbs to express iterative meaning	Duff-Tripp 1997:164
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:164
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	yes	But this is restricted to body-parts and nominal classifiers	Duff-Tripp 1997:171
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:171
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:35
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	4	locative, referential, vocative and genitive	Duff-Tripp 1997:35
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:35
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	no	Case does not occur in core arguments. Thus, this questions is not applicable to the Yanesha case	Duff-Tripp 1997:36
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no	Case does not occur in core arguments. Thus, this questions is not applicable to the Yanesha case	Duff-Tripp 1997:36
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:35
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:29
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:29, 35
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:29, 35
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:29, 35
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:47, 66-7
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:23-68
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:53
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:23-68
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:61
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:71-5
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	3		Duff-Tripp 1997:53
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:53
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:23-51
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:23-51
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes	There are more than 100 classifiers	Duff-Tripp 1997:113
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:253-66
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:253-66
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	yes	There is a classifier which means "person"	Duff-Tripp 1997:263
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	no	It seems that gender is not distinguished in nouns either	Duff-Tripp 1997:61
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:253-66
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:55
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:253-66
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:253-66
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	yes	Classifiers are used as nouns in NN compounding	Duff-Tripp 1997:38, 253-66
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:26-8
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes	The suffix orthographically is -esha´ but there is not a phonological key to go from orthography to phonology. There is another plural suffix -are´.	Duff-Tripp 1997:26
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:26
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:26
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:26
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:26-8
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:61
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:26-8
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no info		Duff-Tripp
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	no info		Duff-Tripp
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no info		Duff-Tripp
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no info		Duff-Tripp
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no info		Duff-Tripp
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no info		Duff-Tripp
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no info		Duff-Tripp
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:69-124
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:69-124
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:61
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:61
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:61
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:61-8
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no	Regular object pronouns are used	Duff-Tripp 199781, :61-8
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:52-60
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	yes	This is restricted to the classifier the adjective may take; the adjective do not agree with the head noun in number or person	Duff-Tripp 1997:52
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	yes	The orthographic form of the morpheme is -añ/-ñ but no key for a phonological form is given	Duff-Tripp 1997:38
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes	The orthographic form is -añ/-ñ/-aña/-ña	Duff-Tripp 1997:39
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	yes	The orthographic form is -aret̴/-et̴	Duff-Tripp 1997:40
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	yes	The orthographic form is -V´t/-Vt/-t where V stands for a vowel	Duff-Tripp 1997:42
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:160
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:29
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:30-3
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:29
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:29
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:253-67
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no	Inalienabl and alienable possession are marked but they may differ in the strategy used	Duff-Tripp 1997:33-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:33-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:30-1
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:30-1
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	no	Body parts are usually possessed but they need not be	Duff-Tripp 1997:31
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no info
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no		Fast 1953:191-4
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Fast 1953:191-4
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	yes	This is only restricted to the bilabial voiceless stop and the alveolar voiceless affricate	Fast 1953:192
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	yes		Fast 1953:191
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		yes		Fast 1953:191
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	yes	This is limited to a maximum of two consonants	Fast 1953:193
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	no	Codas are allowed	Fast 1953:191-4
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Fast 1953:191-4
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no		Fast 1953:191-4
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	yes	However, the author acknowledges not having found any minimal pair differantiated by stress	Fast 1953:194
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no		Fast 1953:191-4
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no		Fast 1953:191-4
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no		Fast 1953:191-4
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	no	sbujects and objects do not get case	Duff-Tripp 1997:35
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no	subjects and objects do not get case	Duff-Tripp 1997:35
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no	subjects and objects do not get case	Duff-Tripp 1997:35
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no	subjects and objects do not get case	Duff-Tripp 1997:35
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no	subjects and objects do not get case	Duff-Tripp 1997:35
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		no	subjects and objects do not get case	Duff-Tripp 1997:67
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no	subjects and objects do not get case	Duff-Tripp 1997:67
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no	subjects and objects do not get case	Duff-Tripp 1997:67
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no	subjects and objects do not get case	Duff-Tripp 1997:67
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no	subjects and objects do not get case	Duff-Tripp 1997:67
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	yes	Subjects and objects are cross-referenced on the verb	Duff-Tripp 1997:72
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:78-9
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:78-9
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:78-9
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	yes	The subject or a relative clause does not tirgger verbal cross-referencing.	Duff-Tripp 1997:72
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	yes	This is the orthographic form. The grapheme "ñ" probably stands for a palatal nasal.	Duff-Tripp 1997:107
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	yes	Based on example. The form is the graphemic form which as it occurs in the source	Duff-Tripp 1997:116
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:183-4
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no	However, yes-no questions usually occur as negative sentences	Duff-Tripp 1997:183-4
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:183-4
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no	The contet question word occurs sentence-initially but the other constituens remain as in declarative sentences	Duff-Tripp 1997:184-6
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:179-81
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	yes	The word ama "not" is together with the verbal negation suffix	Duff-Tripp 1997:179
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:179-81
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	yes	The word ama "not"	Duff-Tripp 1997:179
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:179-81
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:179
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:179-81
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:179-81
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:188
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:189
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:188
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:58-9
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:58-9
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:42
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:206
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:206-17
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:206-17
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:206
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:38-40, 65, 79
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:61
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:72
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes	Only for third person plural	Duff-Tripp 1997:72
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:41, 58
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	yes	Pronouns usually occur before the verb whereas nouns occur after the verb	Duff-Tripp 1997:158
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:72
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:72
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:75
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	yes	Third person singular is zero case-marked; third person plural is marked by a verbal suffix	Duff-Tripp 1997:72
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:77
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:71-9
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	yes	This is true only for first and second person	Duff-Tripp 1997:72
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:71-87
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	no info		Duff-Tripp
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no info		Duff-Tripp
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no info		Duff-Tripp
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:97
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	yes	However, it seems that this is not always a valence change suffix; instead, it is required with the so called reflexive verbs	Duff-Tripp 1997:70
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:70, 97
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:119
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:69-124
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	yes	object incorporation	Duff-Tripp 1997:171
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	yes	It is a verbal suffix	Duff-Tripp 1997:79
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	yes	Notice that the consonants have a tilde on them	Duff-Tripp 1997:97
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:97
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:97
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:97
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:100-1
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	yes	It is marked by the reduplication of the regular causative suffix	Duff-Tripp 1997:101
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:100-1
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	yes	The applicative and dtive verbal suffixes increase verbal valency	Duff-Tripp 1997:99
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:118
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	yes	But this is distinguished by temporal adverbs	Duff-Tripp 1997:118
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	yes	But this is done only by the use of auxiliaries and/or clitics but not a dedicated affix	Duff-Tripp 1997:117
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:117
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:87-90
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:87-90
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:87-90
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:87-90
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	yes	These are verbal suffixes	Duff-Tripp 1997:91
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:120-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	yes	This is done by an auxiliary verb	Duff-Tripp 1997:122
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:120-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	yes	This is done by an auxiliary verb	Duff-Tripp 1997:122
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no	The same auxilary used for first-hand information is used	Duff-Tripp 1997:122
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:120-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:120-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:120-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:120-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:122
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no	The same form used for second person indicative is used for imperatives. However, the negative imperative is marked by {=ats}	Duff-Tripp 1997:114
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no	It seems that the subjunctive mood marker has this meaning since it is used for "un deseo o una petición cortés" (polite wish or request)	Duff-Tripp 1997:115
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:179-181
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:113-5
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no info		Duff-Tripp
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no info		Duff-Tripp
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no info		Duff-Tripp
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no info		Duff-Tripp
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no info		Duff-Tripp
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no info		Duff-Tripp
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no	There is a particle which conveys "surprise" meaning but it is not marking (un)expected information	Duff-Tripp 1997:69-124
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:69-124
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	no	There is a verbal suffix which encodes habitual meaning. The form shown is the graphemic form.	Duff-Tripp 1997:116
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no info		Duff-Tripp
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no	Irrealis meaning is marked by an auxiliary verb	Duff-Tripp 1997:121
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	yes	It conveys that the action expressed by the verb is thoguht as been performed badly.	Duff-Tripp 1997:106
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:69-124
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:71-9
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no	Basic constituent order seems to be VSO	Duff-Tripp 1997:168
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:158
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:158
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:168
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:168
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no	There is no mention of either preposition or postposition. However, locative or possessice expresions are encoded by suffixes.	Duff-Tripp 1997:23-122
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		no	There is no mention of either preposition or postposition. However, locative or possessice expresions are encoded by suffixes.	Duff-Tripp 1997:23-122
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes	But the possessive marker is in the head noun	Duff-Tripp 1997:29
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:29-30
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:158
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:158
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:158
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no		Duff-Tripp 1997:158
Word Order	Num-Noun		no info		Duff-Tripp
Word Order	Noun-Num		no info		Duff-Tripp
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:206
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:206
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:206-17
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Duff-Tripp 1997:206-17
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Duff-Tripp 1997:184

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