Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Apurinã

Family: Arawakan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: apu
Location: -8.22°, -66.77°
Notes
Features: Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Grammatical Data

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Data Sources: Facundes, Sidney da Silva. 2000. The language of the Apurinã people of Brazil (Maipure/Arawak). PhD. Diss: SUNY Albany Freitas, Marilia. 2017. A posse em Apurinã: descrição de construções atributivas e predicativas em comparação com outras línguas Aruák. PhD dissertation, Universidade Federal de Pará.

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (1)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna		Bactris gasipaes	kawy	kawɨ[rɨ], kawɨ-rɨ [rɨ 'unpossessed'; Freitas p.210)	pupunha														Freitas 2017: 210


peach palm, pejibaye palm

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Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	yes	There are both productive and non-productive compounding processes, classificatory nouns (CN2s) are productive elements.	Facundes, 2000: 187, 208
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no		Facundes, 2000: 464-469
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	no		Facundes, 2000: 4664-469
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no		Facundes, 2000: 464-469
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes		Facundes, 2000: 294-295
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no	The only fused categories are person/number	Facundes, 2000: 271
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Facundes, 2000: 270
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes		Facundes, 2000: 270
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Facundes, 2000: 270
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Facundes, 2000: 270
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Facundes, 2000: 270
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	no	only for onomotopaeic forms	Facundes, 2000: 250
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	no	only for onomotopaeic forms	Facundes, 2000: 250
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	yes	seems to be limited to a certain set of nouns, but no information on the size of that set; classificatory nouns are incorporated in an anaphoric way	Facundes, 2000: 298
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no info	Thre is a section on noun incorporation, but no suggestion that other elements can be incorporated. Language has no adjectives
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	yes	The goal marker -monhi marks goal role in ditransitives.	Facundes, 200: 285-286
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	6		Facundes, 2000: 385-390
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no	Beneficiaries/recipients are marked as goals.	Facundes, 2000: 389
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	yes	Facundes notes that instrumental marking is limited to inanimates, while associative marking is limited to humans. Other case markers do not seem to be limited.	Facundes, 2000: 385-390
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no		Facundes, 2000: 385-390
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Facundes, 2000: 385
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Facundes, 2000: 385
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Facundes, 2000: 385
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Facundes, 2000: 385
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Facundes, 2000: 385
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no	Facundes uses the term "associative" rather than "comitative"	Facundes, 2000: 385
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no	Only demonstratives	Facundes, 2000: 356
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no		Facundes, 2000: 356
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no		Facundes, 2000: 356
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	no		Facundes, 2000: 345-346
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Facundes, 2000: 380
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	2	The demonstratives inflect for gender.	Facundes, 2000: 355-357
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no	The demonstratives also inflect for gender.	Facundes, 2000: 355-357
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes	masculine and feminine, cross-referenced on verb and demonstratives	Facundes, 2000: 150
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	2		Facundes, 2000: 150
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes	There are two types of what are called "classificatory nouns," one set is less productive, the other set is more productive. Facundes notes that these have properties of both classifiers and noun class/genders, so they are somewhere between the two.	Facundes, 2000: 167, 169, 176
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	yes	noun classes are masculine and feminine	Facunes, 2000: 218
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes		Facundes, 2000: 218
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	no info	All nouns are assigned to a noun class regardless of animacy. No indication of relative rates of agreement marking.	Facundes, 2000: 218
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	yes		Facundes, 2000: 218
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		yes	Many classificatory nouns (CN2s) have semantics related to shape.	Facundes, 2000:169-175
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes	Many classificatory nouns (CN2s) have semantics related to shape.	Facundes, 2000:169-175
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no	Nouns do not require classifiers, so no classifier slot to be filled	Facundes, 2000: 162-179
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no	no mention of numeral classifiers in section on numerals	Facundes, 2000: 359-360
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	no	Deverbal nouns derived using other suffixes.	Facundes, 2000: 214-215
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no	No discussion of singular marker among number markers.	Facundes, 2000: 260-263
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes		Facundes, 2000: 260-262
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Facundes, 2000: 260-262
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Facundes, 2000: 260-262
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Facundes, 2000: 260-262
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no		Facundes, 2000: 260-262
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no	Not for subject/object marking or possessive prefixes	Facundes, 2000: 345-355
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no	No discussion of associative plural marker among other number markers.	Facundes, 2000: 260-263
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	yes		Facundes, 2000: 359
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	no		Facundes, 2000: 359
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no		Facundes, 2000: 359
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no		Facundes, 2000: 359
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no info	epi-epi-hãtu-kapanu 'five' is often translated as 'a handful' but this seems to be more due to the complexity of the phrase. No discussion of other numerals.	Facundes, 2000: 359-360
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	yes		Facundes, 2000: 359-360
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	yes		Facundes, 2000: 359-360
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no	Future marking can attach to noun, pronoun, numeral, and particle bases, but this isn't exclusive to predicative constructions (future marker is a clitic). In examples of non-verbal clauses, none have tense/aspect marking.	Facundes, 2000: 410, 504
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no	Examples on page 504 do not seem to have person marking, although this may be because they have an overt subject. Facundes notes that non-verbal clauses are formed "solely of the juxtaposition of two NPs."	Facundes, 2000: 504
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		yes		Facundes, 2000: 345-346
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no		Facundes, 2000: 345-346
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Facundes, 2000: 345-346
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Facundes, 2000: 345-346
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no		Facundes, 2000: 510
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	no	Adjectival function accomplished through use of classificatory nouns (CNs) or descriptive verbs.	Facundes, 2000: 432-344
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	n/a	The language doesn’t have adjectives	Facundes, 2000: 432-344
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	yes		Facundes, 2000: 247
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes	Facundes notes that both nominalizers are not completely productive.	Facundes, 2000: 244-245
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	yes	This suffix is used as either an instrumental or object nominalizer "thing to V with" or "thing to V". Facundes notes that both nominalizers are not completely productive.	Facundes, 2000: 240-241
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	yes	No indication of how productive it is, but it is also used on verbal roots.	Facundes, 2000: 324
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no	Apurinã has an associative construction, but no conjoined constructions.	Facundes, 2000: 463, 495
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes	Independent pronouns marking possession is also possible.	Facundes, 2000: 380
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Facundes, 2000: 380
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no	Possessive constructions are formed by juxtaposing two noun phrases, the second of which is the possessed noun, although the possessed noun phrase sometimes receives a possessed marker.	Facundes, 2000: 449
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes	Possessive constructions are formed by juxtaposing two noun phrases, the second of which is the possessed noun, although the possessed noun phrase sometimes receives a possessed marker. The head marker does not agree with possessor.	da Silva Facundes, Sidney. (2000). The Language of the Apurinã People of Brazil. Doctoral Dissertation, SUNY Albany: 449
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no	Facundes notes that possessive markers on alienably possessed nouns could be analyzed as genitive classifiers, but doesn't push this analysis, seemingly on the basis that the various markers do not have semantic content.	Facundes, 2000: 232-233
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no	Unpossessed inalienable nouns require the "unposession" marker -txi, but no marking necessary to occur in possessed form.	Facundes, 2000: 152
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	yes	Alienable nouns require one of three suffixes when they are possessed.	Facundes, 2000: 199
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	yes	Unpossessed inalienable nouns require the "unposession" marker -txi, but no pmarking necessary to occur in possessed form.
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	yes	Kin terms never appear in unpossessed form, are considered inalienable because they do not take possessed suffixes.	Facundes, 2000: 154
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	yes		Facundes, 2000: 154
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no	woman,' 'man,' 'male child,' and 'woman child' are all alienable nouns an can occur alone	Facundes, 2000: 202
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no		Facundes 2000: 70-78
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Facundes, 2000: 71
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no	palatalized stops are allophonic	Facundes, 2000: 71
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	yes		Facundes, 2000: 55
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Facundes, 2000: 55
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Facundes, 2000: 87
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	yes		Facundes, 2000: 87
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Facundes, 2000: 87
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no		Facundes, 2000
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no		Facundes, 2000: 93
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no info	not discussed in phonolgoy or morphology sections	Facundes, 2000
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no info	not discussed in phonolgoy or morphology sections	Facundes, 2000
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no		Facundes, 2000: 57-67
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	no	Subject/objects NPs are not case marked.	Facundes, 2000: 471-481
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Facundes, 2000: 471-481
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no		Facundes, 2000: 471-481
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Facundes, 2000: 471-481
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Facundes, 2000: 471-481
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		no	Pronouns not case marked, the same forms used for both subjects and objects.	Facundes, 2000: 346
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no		Facundes, 2000: 346
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Facundes, 2000: 346
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Facundes, 2000: 346
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Facundes, 2000: 346
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	no		Facundes, 2000: 481-482
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Facundes, 2000: 481-482
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Facundes, 2000: 481-482
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Facundes, 2000: 481-482
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	yes		Facundes, 2000: 481-482
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	yes		Facundes, 2000: 316
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	no		Facundes, 2000: 536
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Facundes, 2000: 536
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Facundes, 2000: 536
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	yes		Facundes, 2000: 536
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	yes	clause-initial question word	Facundes, 2000: 361
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	yes	The negation particle kona is either clause initial, or follows first element of the sentence.	Facundes, 2000: 531-533
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no		Facundes, 2000: 531-533
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	yes		Facundes, 2000: 530-533
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	yes		Facundes, 2000: 530-533
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Facundes, 2000: 530-533
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Facundes, 2000: 530-533
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no		Facundes, 2000: 530-533
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no		Facundes, 530-533
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no	No discussion of clause chaining among description of complex clauses.	Facundes, 2000: 560-612
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no		Facundes, 2000: 560-612
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	no	No discussion among description of morphology.	Facundes, 2000
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	n/a	No adjectives in Apurinã.	Facundes, 2000: 342
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	n/a	No adjectives in Apurinã.	Facundes, 2000: 342
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	yes		Facundes, 2000: 504-505
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes		Facundes, 2000: 583-585
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no	No discussion of how relatively common headed and headless relative clauses are, but much more space is given to headed relative clauses.	Facundes, 2000: 561, 583-585
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no	No indication in the section on relative clauses that class markers can be used this way.	Facundes, 2000: 560-587
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		yes		Facundes, 2000: 564
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no	Nominalizers and relativizers do not look related.	Facundes, 2000: 240-245
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes	Facundes doesn't discuss this directly. However, in a corpus analysis, subjects (both NP and pronoun) were overwhlemingly preverbal.	Facundes, 2000: 464, 557
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes		Facundes, 2000: 464
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Facundes, 2000: 464
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Facundes, 2000: 464
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Facundes, 2000: 464
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	yes		Facundes, 2000: 464
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes	If the subject or object is deleted or postverbal.	Facundes, 2000: 466-467
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes	If the subject or object is deleted or postverbal.	Facundes, 2000: 466-467
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no	3rd person masculine is phonemcally /i-/, but sometimes surfaces phonetically as ø.	Facundes, 2000: 141-145
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no	Third person masculine, feminine, and plural are all overtly marked	Facundes, 2000: 141-145
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	yes	Third person plural looks like it is built from the third-person singular marker, plus another suffix. However, person and plural number are fused in first and second persons.	Facundes, 2000: 141
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	yes	The same as subject markers	Facundes, 2000: 141-145
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	yes	Third person singular disitnguishes masculine and feminine	Facundes, 2000: 141-145
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	yes	The theme is marked with object marking on verb, is required and does not take case marking. However, the goal is not marked on verb, is optional, and is marked with an oblique case marker.	Facundes, 2000: 287
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no		Facundes, 2000: 287
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no		Facundes, 2000: 287
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes		Facundes, 2000: 327
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	yes	This morpheme appears in the same slot as other object markers.	Facundes, 2000: 407-408
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	no		Facundes, 2000: 327, 407-408
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes	This is rare in texts, but speakers accept it.	Facundes, 2000: 400-402
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no	Not discussed in Facundes (2000).
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	yes	Gives the meaning "to do X"	Facundes, 2000: 310-311
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	no	The only valence-increasing morpheme is a causative.	Facundes, 2000: 505-509
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	no	The only valence-increasing morpheme is a causative.	Facundes, 2000: 505-509
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Facundes, 2000: 310
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes	Several causative morphemes, both are suffixes.	Facundes, 2000: 310
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Facundes, 2000: 310
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	yes	This verb takes a full sentence complement clause, has the meaning "call someone to do something."	Facundes, 2000: 600
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no info		Facundes, 2000
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no info		Facundes, 2000
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no	The only valence-increasing morpheme is a causative.	Facundes, 2000: 505-509
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	no		Facundes, 2000: 513
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no		Facundes, 2000: 513
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no		Facundes, 2000: 513
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		yes		Facundes, 2000: 513
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Facundes, 2000: 513
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Facundes, 2000: 513
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Facundes, 2000: 513
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Facundes, 2000: 513
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	no	Not listed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no	Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no	Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no	Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	yes	No evidential system discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no	Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no	Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		yes	Only one evidential value.	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no	Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 513-529
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no	No evidentials mentioned in section on particles.	Facundes, 2000: 366-374
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no	No evidential system discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no	Facundes says that most speakers do not use a special imperative form, although one speaker has used a special form in elicited data.	Facundes, 2000: 542
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no		Facundes, 2000: 542
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	no	Facundes discusses morphological and periphrastic negation, but does not indicate a difference between imperative and declarative clauses.	Facundes, 2000: 530-533
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	yes	Exact form depends on speech register and rate of speech.	Facundes, 2000: 374
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no	Not listed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no info		Facundes, 2000
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no info		Facundes, 2000
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no	Not listed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no info		Facundes, 2000
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no info		Facundes, 2000
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	yes	This is called "frustrative," has the meaning that the result of the action what not expected or desired.	Facundes, 2000: 404
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	yes	Facundes calls this anti-perfective/"almost" marking, to indicate that some event almost happened.	Facundes, 2000: 315
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	yes	Used to mark events that occur with reasonable frequency.	Facundes, 2000: 327
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no	Not listed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no	Not listed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no	Not listed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics).	Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	yes	Collective action marking, limited to verbs that describe actions that Apurinãs do collectively	Facundes, 2000: 313-314
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no info		Facundes, 2000
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no	Facundes notes that only VSO is not possible, and all orders but VSO and VOS appear in texts. However, many of the examples he gives have pronominal arguments. Aberdour (1985) discusses a basic constituent order. In addition, Facundes' corpora is mostly S	Facundes, 2000: 548
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no	In corpus, only 15/173 free subjects follow verb.	Aberdour, 1985: 28
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no	In corpus, only 15/173 free subjects follow verb.	Aberdour, 1985: 28
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	no	In corpus, 38 of 57 free objects precede verb.	Aberdour, 1985: 28
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no	Aberdour notes that SVO seems like a viable candidate for basic constituent order on the basis of corpus evidence, although notes that more information is necessary.	Aberdour, 1985: 27
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Facundes, 2000: 385
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Facundes, 2000: 385
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes		Facundes, 2000: 449
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no		Facundes, 2000: 449
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	n/a	Apurinã does not have adjectives.	Facundes, 2000: 342
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	n/a	Apurinã does not have adjectives.	Facundes, 2000: 342
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes	All examples are Dem N, although Facundes does not discuss it explicitly.	Facundes, 2000: 355-359
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no	All examples are Dem N, although Facundes does not discuss it explicitly.	Facundes, 2000: 355-359
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes	All examples are Num N, although Facundes does not discuss it explicitly.	Facundes, 2000: 359
Word Order	Noun-Num		no	All examples are Num N, although Facundes does not discuss it explicitly.	Facundes, 2000: 359
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes	Postnominal relative clauses are the most common and the most easily accepted by speakers.	Facundes, 2000: 572
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Facundes, 2000: 572
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no		Facundes, 2000: 572
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Facundes, 2000: 572
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Facundes, 2000: 537

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