Apurinã
- Family
- Arawakan
- Region
- South America
- ISO 639-3
- apu
- Location
- -8.22°, -66.77°
- Notes
- Features
-
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
- Data Sources
- Facundes, Sidney da Silva. 2000. The language of the Apurinã people of Brazil (Maipure/Arawak). PhD. Diss: SUNY Albany Freitas, Marilia. 2017. A posse em Apurinã: descrição de construções atributivas e predicativas em comparação com outras línguas Aruák. PhD dissertation, Universidade Federal de Pará.
Flora Fauna Vocabulary (1)
| English | Spanish | Portuguese | Semantic Field | Part of Speech | Linnean Name | Orthographic Form | Phonemicized Form | Gloss as in Source | Etymology Code | Proto-Form | Proto-Language | Loan Source | Etymology Notes | Wanderwort Status | Etyma Set | Range of Term | Word Structure | Word Structure Notes | Classifier | Classifier Notes | Hypernym | Source | Association with Social Categories | Ritual/Mythologically Significant | Ritual Notes | Food Source | Food Notes | Medicinal | Medicinal Notes | How Collected | Who Collects | How Prepared | Psychotropic | Psychotropic Notes | Traded | Trade Notes | Distribution | Habitat | Dangerous | Ethnobiology Notes | Species Notes | General Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| peach palm, pejibaye palm | chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol) | pupunha | flora-fauna | Bactris gasipaes | kawy | kawɨ[rɨ], kawɨ-rɨ [rɨ 'unpossessed'; Freitas p.210) | pupunha | Freitas 2017: 210 |
Grammatical Data (226)
| Category | Grammatical Feature | Grammatical Feature: Notes | Feature Status | Grammatical Notes | Source | Etymology Notes | General Notes | Phylogenetic Code |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phonology - Segmental | Pre-/post-nasalized stops | Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive. | no | Facundes 2000: 70-78 | ||||
| Phonology - Segmental | Glottalized/ejective consonants | Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative] | no | Facundes, 2000: 71 | ||||
| Phonology - Segmental | Palatalized stops | Phonemic contrast | no | palatalized stops are allophonic | Facundes, 2000: 71 | |||
| Phonology - Segmental | Phonemic vowel length | Does the language have long and short vowels? | yes | Facundes, 2000: 55 | ||||
| Phonology - Segmental | Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels | no | Facundes, 2000: 55 | |||||
| Phonology - Segmental | Complex onsets | Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme | no | Facundes, 2000: 87 | ||||
| Phonology - Segmental | No codas | *(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained] | yes | Facundes, 2000: 87 | ||||
| Phonology - Segmental | Word-final coda required | Do all syllables end in a consonant? | no | Facundes, 2000: 87 | ||||
| Phonology - Suprasegmental | Contrastive tones | Note how many contrastive tones | no | Facundes, 2000 | ||||
| Phonology - Suprasegmental | Contrastive stress | Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference? | no | Facundes, 2000: 93 | ||||
| Phonology - Suprasegmental | Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable | In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments | no info | not discussed in phonolgoy or morphology sections | Facundes, 2000 | |||
| Phonology - Suprasegmental | Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries | Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to? | no info | not discussed in phonolgoy or morphology sections | Facundes, 2000 | |||
| Phonology - Suprasegmental | Vowel harmony | no | Facundes, 2000: 57-67 | |||||
| Morphology - General | Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb) | Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number] | no | The only fused categories are person/number | Facundes, 2000: 271 | |||
| Morphology - General | Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes | Stem change, tone | no | Facundes, 2000: 270 | ||||
| Morphology - General | Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes) | Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word | yes | Facundes, 2000: 270 | ||||
| Morphology - General | Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing | There are many more prefixes than suffixes | no | Facundes, 2000: 270 | ||||
| Morphology - General | Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing | There are many more suffixes than prefixes | yes | Facundes, 2000: 270 | ||||
| Morphology - General | Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred | The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different | no | Facundes, 2000: 270 | ||||
| Morphology - General | Reduplication: full | The full morpheme is reduplicated | no | only for onomotopaeic forms | Facundes, 2000: 250 | |||
| Morphology - General | Reduplication: partial | Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated | no | only for onomotopaeic forms | Facundes, 2000: 250 | |||
| Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs | Productive NN compounding | Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced | yes | There are both productive and non-productive compounding processes, classificatory nouns (CN2s) are productive elements. | Facundes, 2000: 187, 208 | |||
| Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs | Productive VV serialization (without compounding) | Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection | no | Facundes, 2000: 464-469 | ||||
| Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs | Productive VV compounding | Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word | no | Facundes, 2000: 4664-469 | ||||
| Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs | Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions | There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap' | no | Facundes, 2000: 464-469 | ||||
| Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs | Auxiliary verb(s) | There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs | yes | Facundes, 2000: 294-295 | ||||
| Morphology - Incorporation | Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process | Verb contains nominal segment | yes | seems to be limited to a certain set of nouns, but no information on the size of that set; classificatory nouns are incorporated in an anaphoric way | Facundes, 2000: 298 | |||
| Morphology - Incorporation | Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs | Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns | no info | Thre is a section on noun incorporation, but no suggestion that other elements can be incorporated. Language has no adjectives | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Noun classes/genders | Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP | yes | masculine and feminine, cross-referenced on verb and demonstratives | Facundes, 2000: 150 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Number of noun classes/genders | Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders | 2 | Facundes, 2000: 150 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders) | Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain. | yes | There are two types of what are called "classificatory nouns," one set is less productive, the other set is more productive. Facundes notes that these have properties of both classifiers and noun class/genders, so they are somewhere between the two. | Facundes, 2000: 167, 169, 176 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates | Masculine, feminine, neuter | yes | noun classes are masculine and feminine | Facunes, 2000: 218 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates | yes | Facundes, 2000: 218 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system | Animate/inanimate, human/non-human | no info | All nouns are assigned to a noun class regardless of animacy. No indication of relative rates of agreement marking. | Facundes, 2000: 218 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns | add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only | yes | Facundes, 2000: 218 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates | yes | Many classificatory nouns (CN2s) have semantics related to shape. | Facundes, 2000:169-175 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates | yes | Many classificatory nouns (CN2s) have semantics related to shape. | Facundes, 2000:169-175 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | "Repeater" classifiers | Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot" | no | Nouns do not require classifiers, so no classifier slot to be filled | Facundes, 2000: 162-179 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals) | Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals | no | no mention of numeral classifiers in section on numerals | Facundes, 2000: 359-360 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification | Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns | Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.' | no | Deverbal nouns derived using other suffixes. | Facundes, 2000: 214-215 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Singular number may be marked on the noun | Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups | no | No discussion of singular marker among number markers. | Facundes, 2000: 260-263 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Plural affix on noun | yes | Facundes, 2000: 260-262 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun | no | Facundes, 2000: 260-262 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Plural marked by reduplication of noun | no | Facundes, 2000: 260-262 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Plural word/clitic | no | Facundes, 2000: 260-262 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Plural marked on human or animate nouns only | no | Facundes, 2000: 260-262 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix | Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns | no | Not for subject/object marking or possessive prefixes | Facundes, 2000: 345-355 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Number | Unique associative plural marker | e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them' | no | No discussion of associative plural marker among other number markers. | Facundes, 2000: 260-263 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Definite or specific articles | Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only | no | Only demonstratives | Facundes, 2000: 356 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives | Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness | no | Facundes, 2000: 356 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Indefinite or non-specific article | or marker | no | Facundes, 2000: 356 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals | Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you | no | Facundes, 2000: 345-346 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound) | no | Facundes, 2000: 380 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number) | Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system | 2 | The demonstratives inflect for gender. | Facundes, 2000: 355-357 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity | Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.) | no | The demonstratives also inflect for gender. | Facundes, 2000: 355-357 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories | Gender in 3sg pronouns | yes | Facundes, 2000: 345-346 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories | Gender in 3pl pronouns | no | Facundes, 2000: 345-346 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories | Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns | no | Facundes, 2000: 345-346 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories | Formal/informal distinction in pronouns | Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns | no | Facundes, 2000: 345-346 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories | Reflexive pronouns | e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix | no | Facundes, 2000: 510 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Adpositions mark core NPs | Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients | yes | The goal marker -monhi marks goal role in ditransitives. | Facundes, 200: 285-286 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: number of cases | Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun | 6 | Facundes, 2000: 385-390 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked | Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are | no | Beneficiaries/recipients are marked as goals. | Facundes, 2000: 389 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: symmetrical | All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity) | yes | Facundes notes that instrumental marking is limited to inanimates, while associative marking is limited to humans. Other case markers do not seem to be limited. | Facundes, 2000: 385-390 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: asymmetrical | Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates | no | Facundes, 2000: 385-390 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: suffix or postpositional clitic | yes | Facundes, 2000: 385 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: prefix or prepositional clitic | no | Facundes, 2000: 385 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: infix or inpositional clitic | no | Facundes, 2000: 385 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: stem change | no | Facundes, 2000: 385 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: tone | no | Facundes, 2000: 385 | |||||
| Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions | Case: comitative = instrumental | Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument' | no | Facundes uses the term "associative" rather than "comitative" | Facundes, 2000: 385 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Base-2 | At least some part of the system involves base-2 | yes | Facundes, 2000: 359 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Base-5 | At least some part of the system involves base-5 | no | Facundes, 2000: 359 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Base-10 | At least some part of the system involves base-10 | no | Facundes, 2000: 359 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Other base (specify) | 4, 20, etc. | no | Facundes, 2000: 359 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5 | e.g. two = 'eye-quantity' | no info | epi-epi-hãtu-kapanu 'five' is often translated as 'a handful' but this seems to be more due to the complexity of the phrase. No discussion of other numerals. | Facundes, 2000: 359-360 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Numerals do not go above 5 | 'Many' or some other non-exact term used | yes | Facundes, 2000: 359-360 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Numerals | Numerals do not go above 10 | 'Many' or some other non-exact term used | yes | Facundes, 2000: 359-360 | ||||
| Nominal Categories - Other nominal | Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates | i.e. nominal or adjectival | no | Future marking can attach to noun, pronoun, numeral, and particle bases, but this isn't exclusive to predicative constructions (future marker is a clitic). In examples of non-verbal clauses, none have tense/aspect marking. | Facundes, 2000: 410, 504 | |||
| Nominal Categories - Other nominal | Person inflection on non-verbal predicates | i.e. nominal or adjectival | no | Examples on page 504 do not seem to have person marking, although this may be because they have an overt subject. Facundes notes that non-verbal clauses are formed "solely of the juxtaposition of two NPs." | Facundes, 2000: 504 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession | Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N | alienable/inalienable? | yes | Independent pronouns marking possession is also possible. | Facundes, 2000: 380 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession | Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N | alienable/inalienable? | no | Facundes, 2000: 380 | ||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession | Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent | e.g. 'the boy-'s dog' | no | Possessive constructions are formed by juxtaposing two noun phrases, the second of which is the possessed noun, although the possessed noun phrase sometimes receives a possessed marker. | Facundes, 2000: 449 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession | Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head | e.g. 'the boy his-dog' | yes | Possessive constructions are formed by juxtaposing two noun phrases, the second of which is the possessed noun, although the possessed noun phrase sometimes receives a possessed marker. The head marker does not agree with possessor. | da Silva Facundes, Sidney. (2000). The Language of the Apurinã People of Brazil. Doctoral Dissertation, SUNY Albany: 449 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession | Possessive classifiers | There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities | no | Facundes notes that possessive markers on alienably possessed nouns could be analyzed as genitive classifiers, but doesn't push this analysis, seemingly on the basis that the various markers do not have semantic content. | Facundes, 2000: 232-233 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability | Morphological marking of inalienable possession | Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) | no | Unpossessed inalienable nouns require the "unposession" marker -txi, but no marking necessary to occur in possessed form. | Facundes, 2000: 152 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability | Morphological marking of alienable possession | Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) | yes | Alienable nouns require one of three suffixes when they are possessed. | Facundes, 2000: 199 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability | Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed | An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form | yes | Unpossessed inalienable nouns require the "unposession" marker -txi, but no pmarking necessary to occur in possessed form. | ||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability | Inalienable possession of kin terms | 'my-father' but *father | yes | Kin terms never appear in unpossessed form, are considered inalienable because they do not take possessed suffixes. | Facundes, 2000: 154 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability | Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal) | 'my-leg' but *leg | yes | Facundes, 2000: 154 | ||||
| Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability | Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed | Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man) | no | woman,' 'man,' 'male child,' and 'woman child' are all alienable nouns an can occur alone | Facundes, 2000: 202 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Adjectives | Underived adjectives | There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes | no | Adjectival function accomplished through use of classificatory nouns (CNs) or descriptive verbs. | Facundes, 2000: 432-344 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Adjectives | Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP | There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco | n/a | The language doesn’t have adjectives | Facundes, 2000: 432-344 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Derivation | Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival) | There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb | yes | Facundes, 2000: 247 | ||||
| Nominal Syntax - Derivation | Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer) | There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb | yes | Facundes notes that both nominalizers are not completely productive. | Facundes, 2000: 244-245 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Derivation | Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song) | There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb | yes | This suffix is used as either an instrumental or object nominalizer "thing to V with" or "thing to V". Facundes notes that both nominalizers are not completely productive. | Facundes, 2000: 240-241 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Derivation | Productive verbalizing morphology | There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective | yes | No indication of how productive it is, but it is also used on verbal roots. | Facundes, 2000: 324 | |||
| Nominal Syntax - Other | NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently | 'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary' | no | Apurinã has an associative construction, but no conjoined constructions. | Facundes, 2000: 463, 495 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Dedicated past marker(s) | Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere | no | Facundes, 2000: 513 | ||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference | e.g. distant vs. recent past | no | Facundes, 2000: 513 | ||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference | e.g. imminent vs. distant future | no | Facundes, 2000: 513 | ||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Dedicated future or non-past marker(s) | yes | Facundes, 2000: 513 | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Tense-aspect affixes: prefix | no | Facundes, 2000: 513 | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Tense-aspect affixes: suffix | yes | Facundes, 2000: 513 | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut | no | Facundes, 2000: 513 | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense | Tense-aspect suppletion | no | Facundes, 2000: 513 | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form | There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood | no | Facundes says that most speakers do not use a special imperative form, although one speaker has used a special form in elicited data. | Facundes, 2000: 542 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Polite imperative morpheme | There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language) | no | Facundes, 2000: 542 | ||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses | There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses | no | Facundes discusses morphological and periphrastic negation, but does not indicate a difference between imperative and declarative clauses. | Facundes, 2000: 530-533 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative) | as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing' | yes | Exact form depends on speech register and rate of speech. | Facundes, 2000: 374 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Situational possibility: affix on verb | Inflectional marking of capacity to do something | no | Not listed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Situational possibility: verbal construction | no info | Facundes, 2000 | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Situational possibility: other marking | no info | Facundes, 2000 | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Epistemic possibility: affix on verb | Modal expressing hypothesis | no | Not listed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Epistemic possibility: verbal construction | no info | Facundes, 2000 | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Epistemic possibility: other marking | no info | Facundes, 2000 | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Marking of expected/unexpected action or result | There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected | yes | This is called "frustrative," has the meaning that the result of the action what not expected or desired. | Facundes, 2000: 404 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Verbal frustrative | Modal expressing frustration ("in vain") | yes | Facundes calls this anti-perfective/"almost" marking, to indicate that some event almost happened. | Facundes, 2000: 315 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Verbal habitual | Modal expressing habituality | yes | Used to mark events that occur with reasonable frequency. | Facundes, 2000: 327 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Apprehensive construction | There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens' | no | Not listed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Reality status marking on verbs | There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events' | no | Not listed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Mood | Affect markers (positive/negative) | Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative | no | Not listed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Directionals | Directional elements affixed to the verb | There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc. | no | Not listed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Grammaticalized visual | Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker | no | Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Grammaticalized nonvisual | Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt) | no | Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Grammaticalized inferential | Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker. | no | Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Grammaticalized reportive | Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly' | yes | No evidential system discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Grammaticalized quotative | Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse | no | Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Other evidential | Any other evidential values not represented above | no | Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic | yes | Only one evidential value. | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | ||||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Evidentiality: part of tense system | Includes portmanteau morphs | no | Not discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 513-529 | |||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Evidentiality: separate particle | no | No evidentials mentioned in section on particles. | Facundes, 2000: 366-374 | ||||
| Verbal Categories - Evidentiality | Evidentiality: modal morpheme | no | No evidential system discussed among verbal morphology or "bound formatives" (clitics). | Facundes, 2000: 305-327, 379-410 | ||||
| Verbal Categories - Verbal number | Verbal number suppletion | no info | Facundes, 2000 | |||||
| Verbal Categories - Other | Social interaction markers | Note the type of interaction | yes | Collective action marking, limited to verbs that describe actions that Apurinãs do collectively | Facundes, 2000: 313-314 | |||
| Word Order | No fixed basic constituent order | no | Facundes notes that only VSO is not possible, and all orders but VSO and VOS appear in texts. However, many of the examples he gives have pronominal arguments. Aberdour (1985) discusses a basic constituent order. In addition, Facundes' corpora is mostly S | Facundes, 2000: 548 | ||||
| Word Order | VS in intransitive clauses | Verb precedes subject | no | In corpus, only 15/173 free subjects follow verb. | Aberdour, 1985: 28 | |||
| Word Order | VS in transitive clauses | no | In corpus, only 15/173 free subjects follow verb. | Aberdour, 1985: 28 | ||||
| Word Order | VO in transitive clauses | Verb precedes object | no | In corpus, 38 of 57 free objects precede verb. | Aberdour, 1985: 28 | |||
| Word Order | OS in transitive clauses | Object precedes subject | no | Aberdour notes that SVO seems like a viable candidate for basic constituent order on the basis of corpus evidence, although notes that more information is necessary. | Aberdour, 1985: 27 | |||
| Word Order | Preposition-Noun | no | Facundes, 2000: 385 | |||||
| Word Order | Noun-Postposition or case suffix | yes | Facundes, 2000: 385 | |||||
| Word Order | Gen-Noun | Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book) | yes | Facundes, 2000: 449 | ||||
| Word Order | Noun-Gen | Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John') | no | Facundes, 2000: 449 | ||||
| Word Order | Adj-Noun | Adjective precedes the noun | n/a | Apurinã does not have adjectives. | Facundes, 2000: 342 | |||
| Word Order | Noun-Adj | Adjective follows the noun | n/a | Apurinã does not have adjectives. | Facundes, 2000: 342 | |||
| Word Order | Dem-Noun | yes | All examples are Dem N, although Facundes does not discuss it explicitly. | Facundes, 2000: 355-359 | ||||
| Word Order | Noun-Dem | no | All examples are Dem N, although Facundes does not discuss it explicitly. | Facundes, 2000: 355-359 | ||||
| Word Order | Num-Noun | yes | All examples are Num N, although Facundes does not discuss it explicitly. | Facundes, 2000: 359 | ||||
| Word Order | Noun-Num | no | All examples are Num N, although Facundes does not discuss it explicitly. | Facundes, 2000: 359 | ||||
| Word Order | Noun-Rel | Relative clause follows noun that it modifies | yes | Postnominal relative clauses are the most common and the most easily accepted by speakers. | Facundes, 2000: 572 | |||
| Word Order | Rel-Noun | Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies | no | Facundes, 2000: 572 | ||||
| Word Order | Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative) | e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away') | no | Facundes, 2000: 572 | ||||
| Word Order | Relative clause is correlative or adjoined | e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat' | no | Facundes, 2000: 572 | ||||
| Word Order | Question word is clause initial | 'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause | yes | Facundes, 2000: 537 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative | Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects | no | Subject/objects NPs are not case marked. | Facundes, 2000: 471-481 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative | Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked | no | Facundes, 2000: 471-481 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive | Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker | no | Facundes, 2000: 471-481 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite | Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers | no | Facundes, 2000: 471-481 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive | Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep) | no | Facundes, 2000: 471-481 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative | no | Pronouns not case marked, the same forms used for both subjects and objects. | Facundes, 2000: 346 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative | no | Facundes, 2000: 346 | |||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive | yes, no, mixed, other | no | Facundes, 2000: 346 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite | no | Facundes, 2000: 346 | |||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive | no | Facundes, 2000: 346 | |||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative | Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs | no | Facundes, 2000: 481-482 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive | yes, no, mixed, other | no | Facundes, 2000: 481-482 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive | no | Facundes, 2000: 481-482 | |||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical | Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3) | no | Facundes, 2000: 481-482 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Alignment | Alignment of verbal person-marking: split | More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc. | yes | Facundes, 2000: 481-482 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position | Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects | yes | Facundes doesn't discuss this directly. However, in a corpus analysis, subjects (both NP and pronoun) were overwhlemingly preverbal. | Facundes, 2000: 464, 557 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb | Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option) | yes | Facundes, 2000: 464 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb | Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option) | no | Facundes, 2000: 464 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host | Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. | no | Facundes, 2000: 464 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position | Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects | no | Facundes, 2000: 464 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Person marking on intransitive verbs | Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes | yes | Facundes, 2000: 464 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs | Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers | yes | If the subject or object is deleted or postverbal. | Facundes, 2000: 466-467 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs | Transitive verbs take object (P) markers | yes | If the subject or object is deleted or postverbal. | Facundes, 2000: 466-467 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects | 3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system | no | 3rd person masculine is phonemcally /i-/, but sometimes surfaces phonetically as ø. | Facundes, 2000: 141-145 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects | 3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system | no | Third person masculine, feminine, and plural are all overtly marked | Facundes, 2000: 141-145 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Number can be marked separately from person on the verb | Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately | yes | Third person plural looks like it is built from the third-person singular marker, plus another suffix. However, person and plural number are fused in first and second persons. | Facundes, 2000: 141 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers | Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes | yes | The same as subject markers | Facundes, 2000: 141-145 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking | Gender distinguished in verbal person markers | For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent | yes | Third person singular disitnguishes masculine and feminine | Facundes, 2000: 141-145 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice | Ditransitive constructions: indirect object | In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently | yes | The theme is marked with object marking on verb, is required and does not take case marking. However, the goal is not marked on verb, is optional, and is marked with an oblique case marker. | Facundes, 2000: 287 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice | Ditransitive constructions: double object | In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives | no | Facundes, 2000: 287 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice | Ditransitive constructions: secondary object | In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently | no | Facundes, 2000: 287 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing | Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme | Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal. | yes | Facundes, 2000: 327 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing | Reflexive: dedicated morpheme | Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive. | yes | This morpheme appears in the same slot as other object markers. | Facundes, 2000: 407-408 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing | Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme | Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb | no | Facundes, 2000: 327, 407-408 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing | Passive | Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted | yes | This is rare in texts, but speakers accept it. | Facundes, 2000: 400-402 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing | Antipassive | Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages | no | Not discussed in Facundes (2000). | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing | Other intransitivizing morphology | There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency | yes | Gives the meaning "to do X" | Facundes, 2000: 310-311 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Applicative: benefactive | Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb | no | The only valence-increasing morpheme is a causative. | Facundes, 2000: 505-509 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Applicative: other | Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb | no | The only valence-increasing morpheme is a causative. | Facundes, 2000: 505-509 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Causative: prefix | Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb | no | Facundes, 2000: 310 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Causative: suffix | Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb | yes | Several causative morphemes, both are suffixes. | Facundes, 2000: 310 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone | Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix | no | Facundes, 2000: 310 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Causative: serial verb or analytical construction | Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization | yes | This verb takes a full sentence complement clause, has the meaning "call someone to do something." | Facundes, 2000: 600 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy' | Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.' | no info | Facundes, 2000 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Causative: dedicated sociative | Indicates that causer participates in event | no info | Facundes, 2000 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing | Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence) | There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency | no | The only valence-increasing morpheme is a causative. | Facundes, 2000: 505-509 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Clausal negator is a preposed element | Clausal negator is a preposed element | yes | The negation particle kona is either clause initial, or follows first element of the sentence. | Facundes, 2000: 531-533 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Clausal negator is a postposed element | Clausal negator is a postposed element | no | Facundes, 2000: 531-533 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Negatives: affix | Negatives: affix | yes | Facundes, 2000: 530-533 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Negatives: particle | Negatives: particle | yes | Facundes, 2000: 530-533 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Negatives: auxiliary verb | Negatives: auxiliary verb | no | Facundes, 2000: 530-533 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Negatives: double | Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas' | no | Facundes, 2000: 530-533 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist' | no | Facundes, 2000: 530-533 | |||||
| Simple Clauses - Negation | Distinct negative expression 'I don't know' | Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase | no | Facundes, 530-533 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Interrogatives | Polar questions: interrogative particle | Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle | no | Facundes, 2000: 536 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Interrogatives | Polar questions: verb morphology | Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology | no | Facundes, 2000: 536 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Interrogatives | Polar questions: word order | Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) | no | Facundes, 2000: 536 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Interrogatives | Polar questions: intonation only | Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only | yes | Facundes, 2000: 536 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Interrogatives | Content questions: word order differs from declaratives | Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.) | yes | clause-initial question word | Facundes, 2000: 361 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Predicate adjectives: verbal | Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position | n/a | No adjectives in Apurinã. | Facundes, 2000: 342 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Predicate adjectives: nominal | Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position | n/a | No adjectives in Apurinã. | Facundes, 2000: 342 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible | Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all) | yes | Facundes, 2000: 504-505 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Headless relative clauses | Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head) | yes | Facundes, 2000: 583-585 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause | Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses. | no | No discussion of how relatively common headed and headless relative clauses are, but much more space is given to headed relative clauses. | Facundes, 2000: 561, 583-585 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker | It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause | no | No indication in the section on relative clauses that class markers can be used this way. | Facundes, 2000: 560-587 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Relativizer is a verbal affix | yes | Facundes, 2000: 564 | |||||
| Simple Clauses - Predication | Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer | The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes) | no | Nominalizers and relativizers do not look related. | Facundes, 2000: 240-245 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions | Grammaticalized verbal desiderative | Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it) | yes | Facundes, 2000: 316 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Other | Clause chaining | Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause. | no | No discussion of clause chaining among description of complex clauses. | Facundes, 2000: 560-612 | |||
| Simple Clauses - Other | Morphologically marked switch-reference system | There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined | no | Facundes, 2000: 560-612 | ||||
| Simple Clauses - Other | Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses | Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence | no | No discussion among description of morphology. | Facundes, 2000 |