Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Wapishana

Family: Arawakan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: wap
Location: 2.59°, -59.80°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information

Data Sources: dos Santos, Manoel Gomes. 2006. Uma Gramática do Wapixana (Aruák) – Aspectos da Fonologia, da Morfologia e da Sintaxe. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. Campinas, SP: Univ. xviii+280pp. (Doctoral disseration). Tracy, Frances V. and Melville, Colette and Williams, Olive. 2000. Wapishana. South American Indian Languages, Computer Database (Intercontinental Series, vol. 1) General Editor Mary-Ritchie Key. Irvine: University of California.

Basic Vocabulary (191)

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	Source	Created By
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	dukʰu ii	dukʰu ii	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
and	y	e	grammar	naʔik	naʔik	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	paɽitiʔi	paɽitiʔi	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
at	en, a	em, a	location	i:	i:	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
back	espalda	costas	body	baɽai	baɽai	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
bad	mal	mal	quality	idikʰaɨda	idikʰaɨda	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
belly	barriga	barriga	body	-tʰuˀba	-tʰuˀba	Doubtful loan, direction unknown	Compare Cofán thopa	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location	[-]waranɨ ii	[-]waranɨ ii	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
big	grande	grande	quality	ɨdarɨ; tɨbarɨ	ɨdarɨ; tɨbarɨ	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
black	negro	preto	colour	pʰudidi-ʔu	pʰudidi-ʔu	Doubtful loan	Carib, esp. Eñepa ti-puru-ke	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
blood	sangre	sangue	body	iẓai	iẓai	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body	-ˀbaišin	-ˀbaišin	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
bone	hueso	osso	body	niwaʔɨ	niwaʔɨ	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	-ˀdɨn	-ˀdɨn	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
child	niño, niña	criança	human	kuraiˀdaunaa	kuraiˀdaunaa	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment	[-]waranɨ ii	[-]waranɨ ii	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
cold	frío	frio	quality	wadidi-ʔu	wadidi-ʔu	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality	miʃu	miʃu	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
day	día	dia	time	wakʰandan; kʰanda-ʔu	wakʰandan; kʰanda-ʔu	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Yanomami wakara	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	kaniɽibaʔu	kaniɽibaʔu	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
dingo/wolf			fauna			missing		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
dry	seco	seco	quality	arada-ʔu	arada-ʔu	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Wayana ahalap	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality	manɨna-ʔu	manɨna-ʔu	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
dust	polvo	poeira	environment	ɨnɨˀba	ɨnɨˀba	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
ear	oreja	orelha	body	-tʰaini	-tʰaini	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	imiʔi	imiʔi	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	kʰɨrɨkʰɨ dani ('chicken egg')	kʰɨrɨkʰɨ dani	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
eye	ojo	olho	body	-awɨn	-awɨn	unknown	Possibly inheritance	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
far	lejos	longe	quality	mɨnap	mɨnap	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	kʰiwinii	kʰiwinii	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Carib; Makushi kaiwan, Mapoyo kauri	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	-ˀdarɨ	-ˀdarɨ	loan, direction unknown	Warao dani	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	-iˀdi	-iˀdi	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	tʰikʰaẓi	tʰikʰaẓi	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
flower	flor	flor	environment	[-]suusu	[-]suusu	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment	amaẓaˀda šan	amaẓaˀda šan	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	akaj	akaj	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
good	bueno	bom	quality	kʰaiman	kʰaiman	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	-ẓuwaɨ-ˀdi 'head-hair'	-ẓuwaɨ-ˀdi 'head-hair'	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
hand	mano	mão	body	-kʰaʔɨ	-kʰaʔɨ	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	ɨrɨɨ; uruu	ɨrɨɨ; uruu	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	-ẓuwaɨ	-ẓuwaɨ	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	kimiʃaʔu	kimiʃaʔu	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
how?	como	como	grammar	naʔapam	naʔapam	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	ũgar-ɨ	ũgar-ɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
if	si	se	grammar	paɨgaɽɨ	paɨgaɽɨ	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	uwɨʔ	uwɨʔ	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	[-]ukʰuru	[-]ukʰuru	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
lake	lago	lago	environment	kaɽiʃi:	kaɽiʃi:	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	anaˀba	anaˀba	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	ašaˀbaru	ašaˀbaru	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	tabaɨj	tabaɨj	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	tʰuruwanarɨ pʰiẓuwa-n	tʰuruwanarɨ pʰiẓuwa-n	semantic shift	thunder	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
liver	hígado	figado	body	-kʰɨˀbaa	-kʰɨˀbaa	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	ɖawɨʔau	ɖawɨʔau	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	nai	nai	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
man/male	hombre	homem	human	ˀdaunaiura	ˀdaunaiura	doubtful loan	Carib: Makiritare danwa, Makushi warayoʔ	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	ˀdɨnaa	ˀdɨnaa	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
moon	luna	lua	environment	kʰaɨẓ	kʰaɨẓ	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	-ˀdaru	-ˀdaru	doubtful loan	Carib; Pemon dan, Makiritare denɨ	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
mouth	boca	boca	body	-ˀdakʰu	-ˀdakʰu	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
name	nombre	nome	human	ɨɨ	ɨɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	maunapʰa	maunapʰa	doubtful loan	Carib; Pemon mare, Yukpa mana, but cf. Warekena	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body	ɖinaj	ɖinaj	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	kanaɨ	kanaɨ	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
new	nuevo	novo	quality	pʰaʔina-ʔu	pʰaʔina-ʔu	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
night	noche	noite	time	wamarɨtʰan; marɨtʰa-ʔu	wamarɨtʰan; marɨtʰa-ʔu	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
no/not	no	não	grammar	auna:	auna:	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
nose	nariz	nariz	body	-iˀdiˀba	-iˀdiˀba	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
old	viejo	velho	quality	ẓaam	ẓaam	doubtful loan	Carib, e.g. Makiritare inʃomo 'old one'	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
one	uno	um	number	ˀbaɨdaʔapʰa	ˀbaɨdaʔapʰa	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
other	otro	outro	grammar			missing		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body	rinai	rinai	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	pʰiˀdan	pʰiˀdan	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	wɨnɨ	wɨnɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
red	rojo	vermelho	colour	wɨẓa-ʔu	wɨẓa-ʔu	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body	diwaʔura	diwaʔura	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	dɨnapʰu-saˀba	dɨnapʰu-saˀba	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
root	raíz	raiz	flora	ištʰaˀbaʔɨ	iʃtʰaˀbaʔɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	dyɨpʰɨša-ʔu	dyɨpʰɨša-ʔu	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
sand	arena	areia	environment	kʰatʰɨ	kʰatʰɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	ɖimana	ɖimana	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
short	corto	curto	quality	madiwaɨ	madiwaɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	wauɖaj	wauɖaj	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental	kʰa-kʰiˀbaʔaẓunau-ʔu	kʰa-kʰiˀbaʔaẓunau-ʔu	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
skin	piel	pele	body	maˀda	maˀda	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
sky	cielo	céu	environment	aukaʐ	aukaʐ	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	kʰaikʰapʰasudi-ʔu	kʰaikʰapʰasudi-ʔu	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	tʰikʰaẓi šan	tʰikʰaẓi ʃan	inheritance	Proto-Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
star	estrella	estrela	environment	wiiẓi	wiiẓi	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	atʰamɨnɨ	atʰamɨnɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	kʰɨˀba	kʰɨˀba	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	-ˀdyɨu	ˀdjɨu	inheritance	Proto-Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar		ɖiwɨɽaː	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	ɨnau	ɨnau	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	tuɽumaɽu	tuɽumaɽu	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
thin	delgado	fino	quality	maɖaɖɨkaʔu	maɖaɖɨkaʔu	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
this	este/esta	este	grammar		ɖiwɨɽaː	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	pʰɨgar-ɨ	pʰɨgar-ɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
throat	garganta	garganta	body	[-]šararan	[-]šararan	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
three	tres	tres	number	idikʰinaɨdaʔɨ	idikʰinaɨdaʔɨ	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	tʰuruwanarɨ	tʰuruwanarɨ	doubtful loan	Portuguese trouvão	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
bite	morder	morder	body	arutʰa-n	arutʰa-n	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
blow	soplar	soprar	body	pʰuutʰa-n	pʰuutʰa-n	unknown	Onomatopoeic	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	[-]niẓuwa-n	[-]niẓuwa-n	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	kʰaʔauˀda-n	kʰaʔauˀda-n	inheritance?		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body	šumaɨa-n	šumaɨa-n	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
climb	subir	subir	motion	ẓaida-n	ẓaida-n	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
come	venir	vir	motion	waʔatin	waʔatin	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	warakʰa-n	warakʰa-n	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
count	contar	contar	mental	aitan	aitan	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	ẓaada-n	ẓaada-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	čʰuuta-n	čʰuuta-n	unknown	Possibly inheritance	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	mauwakʰa-n	mauwakʰa-n	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	kʰičʰada-n	kʰičʰada-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	kʰa-ẓanˀdaʔautʰ-ĩĩa-n	kʰa-ẓanˀdaʔautʰ-ĩĩa-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	tʰɨẓa-n	tʰɨẓa-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
eat	comer	comer	body	aruupʰa-n	aruupʰa-n	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fall	caer	cair	motion	wautʰa-n	wautʰa-n	inheritance?		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fear	miedo	medo	mental	taɽian (be scared, have fear)	taɽian (be scared, have fear)	doubtful loan	Carib, e.g. Waimiri-Atroari teneriki	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
flow	fluir	fluir	motion	ẓiutʰa-n	ẓiutʰa-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fly	volar	voar	motion	ẓɨɨtʰa-n	ẓɨɨtʰa-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
grow	crecer	crescer	state	dyaɨpʰai-n	dyaɨpʰai-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	aˀbatʰa-n	aˀbatʰa-n	inheritance	see Guajiro	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	diẓa-n	diẓa-n	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	ʐuitʃ	ʐuitʃ	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	ʐamt	ʐamt	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
kill	matar	matar	impact	ẓuwia-n	ẓuwia-n	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	aitʰapʰa-n	aitʰapʰa-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
laugh	reír	rir	mental	ʃaʐutan	ʃaʐutan	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	waʐti	waʐti	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body	kakɨp (viver), maʃaʔap (morar)	kakɨp (viver), maʃaʔap (morar)	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	daʔatʰa-n	daʔatʰa-n	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	tʰinikʰa-n	tʰinikʰa-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
say	decir	dizer	mental	kʰia-n	kʰia-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact	kɨzɨt	kɨzɨt	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
see	ver	ver	mental	tʰɨkʰapʰa-n	tʰɨkʰapʰa-n	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	baʔi	baʔi	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	sakantan	sakantan	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	ˀdaʔawɨ-n	ˀdaʔawɨ-n	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	dama-n	dama-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
spit	escupir	cuspir	body	supʰitʰa-n	supʰitʰa-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	tʰadaʔukʰa-n	tʰadaʔukʰa-n	inheritance?		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	raɨda-n	raɨda-n	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact	dakʰatʰa-n	dakʰatʰa-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	kʰadišitʰa-n	kʰadišitʰa-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
steal	robar	roubar	other	kʰuʔidapʰa-n	kʰuʔidapʰa-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
suck	chupar	chupar	body	suẓukʰa-n	suẓukʰa-n	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	šiia-n	šiia-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	niutʰa-n	niutʰa-n	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
think	pensar	pensar	mental	diʔitʰapʰa-n	diʔitʰapʰa-n	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	kabuʔutan	kabuʔutan	inheritance?		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	duʔutʰa-n	duʔutʰa-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other	pʰadantʰa-n	pʰadantʰa-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	tait	tait	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	čʰiʔikʰapʰa-n	tʃʰiʔikʰapʰa-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	kaʔɨɖiɲam	kaʔɨɖiɲam	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body	tʰaˀbaawa-n	tʰaˀbaawa-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	-ninuˀba	-ninuˀba	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
tooth	diente	dente	body	-ɨˀdakʰu	-ɨˀdakʰu	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
two	dos	dois	number	dyaʔɨtʰam	djaʔɨtʰam	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
water	agua	agua	environment	wɨnɨ	wɨnɨ	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	waɨnau	waɨnau	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar			missing		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	ẓaˀbi-ʔu	ẓaˀbi-ʔu	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	kʰanu-m dii; naʔapʰam	kʰanu-m dii; naʔapʰam	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	naʔapainim	naʔapainim	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
where?	donde	onde	grammar	naʔiam (di:)	naʔiam (di:)	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
white	blanco	branco	colour	ˀbarakʰa-ʔu	ˀbarakʰa-ʔu	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	kʰan-dii; kʰanu-m	kʰan-dii; kʰanu-m	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	-ˀdaiaru	-ˀdajaru	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
wind	viento	vento	environment	auwaɽɨ	auwaɽɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
wing	ala	asa	body	[-]kʰɨtʰɨˀba	[-]kʰɨtʰɨˀba	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	ẓɨna	ẓɨna	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	kʰidai-ʔu	kʰidai-ʔu	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	ɨnau	ɨnau	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
foot	pie	pé	body	-kʰiˀdiˀba	-kʰiˀdiˀba	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar	kʰušan	kʰušan	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
all	todo	todos	other	baukup	baukup	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body	[-]ˀbaruriʔi	[-]ˀbaruriʔi	unknown	Some similarity to Carib (e.g. Eñepa paraʔmu), but borrowing seems unlikely	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body	kiʃap	kiʃap	unknown	Possibly inheritance	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body	ɖik	ɖik	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	[-]šiin	[-]šiin	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body	mašikʰia-n	mašikʰia-n	unique		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body	ˀdawɨ-n	ˀdawɨ-n	unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
bark	corteza	casca	environment	atʰamɨnɨ mada	atʰamɨnɨ mada	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fingernail	uña	unha	body	-ˀbaẓi	-ˀbaẓi	inheritance?		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
heart	corazón	coração	body	-nyɨkʰɨnɨɨ	njɨkʰɨnɨɨ	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
sun	sol	sol	time	kʰamuu	kʰamuu	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	miˀdɨkʰɨu; nawaẓi	miˀdɨkʰɨu; nawaẓi	unknown; unknown		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
green	verde	verde	quality	kʰuʔuri-ʔu	kʰuʔuri-ʔu	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
hot	caliente	quente	quality	wičʰa-ʔu	witʃʰa-ʔu	inheritance		See Language page	Ana Paula B.

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (136)

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Source	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Food Source	Medicinal	Psychotropic	Traded	Distribution	Dangerous	General Notes	Created By
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana				missing						See Language page	1	0	0	0	1	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	shrub	Ana Paula B.
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)	no		Ana Paula B.
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	sukuɽɨ	sukuɽɨ		doubtful loan		Carib				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	kʰanawaˀda; atʰurɨ	kʰanawaˀda; atʰurɨ		unique		second form is from 'canoe'	May be inheritance			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Throughout Amazonia	no?	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi	Ana Paula B.
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis	pʰuuwa	pʰuuwa		unknown						See Language page	1	0	0	0	0	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls	no		Ana Paula B.
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus	kʰurii	kʰurii		inheritance						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes	pakubaʔi	pakubaʔi		unknown						See Language page	2	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	yes		Ana Paula B.
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	pʰaẓaru	pʰaẓaru		unique						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae	generic ant: matʰɨ	generic ant: matʰɨ		unknown			Gloss as 'generic' not clear from source. Might be cognate w/ 'sauva' in other lgs, but correspondences don't seem to match well.			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0				Ana Paula B.
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonian lowlands	no		Ana Paula B.
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	kapaʃi	kapaʃi		inheritance						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread in Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	tropical regions, especially river banks	no	plant	Ana Paula B.
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	tree	Ana Paula B.
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.	tree: sɨẓ kʰadɨnaa	tree: sɨẓ kʰadɨnaa		loan		Carib kurutana 'bastard plantain'				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.	Ana Paula B.
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.	tʰamarɨu	tʰamarɨu		unique						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.	kʰumaasa	kʰumaasa		loan (into protolanguage?) - WW	North Arawak	%kumana	Wanderwort: May have TG source, loan into Wai Wai, various East Tukanoan, Puinave, etc.	WW	%kumana	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant	Ana Paula B.
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	maˀbaˀdarɨ	maˀbaˀdarɨ		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		kutɨʔɨʐɨ	kutɨʔɨʐɨ		inheritance						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forests, native to Brazil	no	tree	Ana Paula B.
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba				missing						See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	no	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua	Ana Paula B.
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	mutu	mutu		inheritance	Proto-Arawak?		History unclear; similar form attested in Paresi.			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	indigenous gardens	no	plant; tree	Ana Paula B.
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	no	tree	Ana Paula B.
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata				missing						See Language page	2	0	0	0	0		yes		Ana Paula B.
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	mapʰapʰaru	mapʰapʰaru		inheritance						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris	kaʃu	kaʃu		inheritance	North Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties	Ana Paula B.
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Brazil, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, Guyana	no
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda	pʰišiˀbaʔi	pʰiʃiˀbaʔi		unique						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forest, floodplain	no	vine	Ana Paula B.
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca				missing						See Language page	1	0	0	1	1	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	no	plant	Ana Paula B.
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria	ˀbašarau	ˀbaʃarau		loan		Carib, e.g. Wai Wai mahčaru				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu	bakɨɽ	bakɨɽ		loan		Carib	e.g. Akawaio pagira			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua	kuatʃi	kuatʃi		loan		Wayampi kwasi				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)	kiɲaɽɨɖɨ	kiɲaɽɨɖɨ		inheritance						See Language page	0	0	0	0	1	secondary scrub vegetation	no	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')	Ana Paula B.
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	aru	aru		unique			Possibly cognate Warekena			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	arimarakʰa	arimarakʰa		loan		Carib (Pemon/Makushi)	Pemon aɾimaɾaka			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Not native; widespread	no		Ana Paula B.
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae	uriˀdi	uriˀdi		inheritance		loan into Akawaio?	Akawaio: werudʒi			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family	ˀbai	ˀbai		inheritance	Proto-Arawak?	prob. related to S. Arawak *hopa				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus	kʰasumi	kʰasumi		loan		Carib: WaiWai kašmi				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		yes		Ana Paula B.
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		kupaɨn	kupaɨn		inheritance	Proto-Arawak (North and South)					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
fish (large type)	paiche, pirarucú o arapaima	pirarucu	flora-fauna	Arapaima gigas				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	big rivers only	no
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.	uku	uku		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	yes [used to poison people]	shrub/tree	Ana Paula B.
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	kʰuwaiˀba	kʰuwaiˀba		inheritance		Carib	e.g. Akawaio tʃiʔpoŋ; Also: kʰuwaiˀba (Melville IDS)			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	tʰaruˀbaru	tʰaruˀbaru		unknown						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana				missing						See Language page	1	0	0	0	0	widespread lowland SA	no	shrub	Ana Paula B.
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)	piniɖi	piniɖi		unique						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões	no		Ana Paula B.
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread South America	no		Ana Paula B.
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.	maɽata	maɽata		inheritance	Proto-Arawak (North and South)	WW%mare, Arawak origin				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Different types have different localized ranges	no		Ana Paula B.
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi				missing						See Language page	1	0	0	1	0	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	no	vine	Ana Paula B.
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae	kʰara-kʰarari	kʰara-kʰarari		doubtful loan, direction unknown		Tupi-Guarani (see Aura kar'kara) or Tiriyo kahkakane: possibly onomatopoeic				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus	kʰawaru	kʰawaru		loan		Portuguese				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0				Ana Paula B.
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens	ɖiːɖaɖa	ɖiːɖaɖa		unique						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	no	plant	Ana Paula B.
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	pimɨɖa	pimɨɖa		inheritance	Central North Arawak					See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread	no		Ana Paula B.
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana	Ana Paula B.
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0				Ana Paula B.
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	baɨɖukuɽɨ	baɨɖukuɽɨ		unique						See Language page	1	2	0	0	0		yes		Ana Paula B.
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	large tree	Ana Paula B.
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	no	tree	Ana Paula B.
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.	wabu	wabu		loan		Carib	See Carijona wahu			See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	no	plant	Ana Paula B.
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.	kaʐaɽa	kaʐaɽa		doubtful loan into protolg - WW		%arara		WW	%ara	See Language page	1	1	0	0	1	Widespread Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	maẓikʰi	maẓikʰi		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	no	plant	Ana Paula B.
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	kanɨʐ	kanɨʐ		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	no	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield	Ana Paula B.
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	makaʃiɽi	makaʃiɽi		loan		Carib 'amaka sera' = 'sweet manioc'	Found in some TG languages and in Warekena; probably a loan from TG, but inherited status in that group is unclear.			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	no	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety	Ana Paula B.
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa				missing						See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	no	trunks contain sago-like starch	Ana Paula B.
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	misu	misu		unknown			Could be inheritance, but correspondences don't appear regular.			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)	čʰamadaru; atʰamɨn tʰain	tʃʰamadaru; atʰamɨn tʰain		unknown			Also: atʰamɨn tʰain			See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no	prioritize generic term that includes any edible species	Ana Paula B.
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae	yawari	jawari		loan - WW		%jawari	Likely loan Carib (Wai Wai?) > Wapishana /jawari/; Hodï /yowale/; Yanomami /awaɾe/, Piaroa yäväre	WW	%jaware	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes	masuwikʰi	masuwikʰi		inheritance						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread	no		Ana Paula B.
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)	uɽanɨ	uɽanɨ		loan		Carib; cf. Akawaio urana	Akawaio urana			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana	dyɨwɨẓɨadaʔɨ (IDS)			missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	no	palm	Ana Paula B.
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica	waru	waru		inheritance - WW?	North Arawak	%awaro				See Language page	1	0	0	0	1	Widespread	no		Ana Paula B.
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no	palm	Ana Paula B.
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes	wazii		pupunha	missing						Oliveira et al. 2011: 170	2	1	0	0	0		no	'<wazi> is glossed as 'awara palm' [Astrocaryum vulgare; tucuma] in Ati'o et al. 2000. Scholar's Dictionary and Grammar of the Wapishana Language. p.93. From Konrad Rybka: I am not sure if the Wapishana term is correct. I think Henfrey’s work is pretty re	Ana Paula B.
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant	Ana Paula B.
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant	Ana Paula B.
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no [not in this region]		Ana Paula B.
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum	kʰaẓɨɨ	kʰaẓɨɨ		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation	no	compare entries for sweet potato	Ana Paula B.
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no	tree	Ana Paula B.
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones	kʰankʰurɨn	kʰankʰurɨn		unique						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		yes		Ana Paula B.
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua				missing						See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia		may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries	Ana Paula B.
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata	generic lizard: kʰuitʰu	generic lizard: kʰuitʰu	generic lizard	inheritance	North Arawak?					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda	uwaɨ	uwaɨ		unique			Similarity to Akawaio kuiwa, but no clear relationship.			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		generic snake: kʰuwaẓaẓ	generic snake: kʰuwaẓaẓ		unique						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox	iʃaʐaɽɨ	iʃaʐaɽɨ		unique						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread South America	yes		Ana Paula B.
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae	suuwa	suuwa		inheritance						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.	kʰauwiam	kʰauwiam		loan		Carib	e.g. Wai wai awayama; Makushi kaiyuma			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant	Ana Paula B.
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.	ˀdyɨɨˀbɨrɨ	ˀdyɨɨˀbɨrɨ		loan - WW		Carib, e.g. Tiriyo cipari				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	kʰaaẓɨɨ	kʰaaẓɨɨ		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant	Ana Paula B.
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	kudui	kudui		inheritance			Cognate Paresi			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae	mami	mami		inheritance	Northern Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	frog: kʰiˀbaru	frog: kʰiˀbaru	frog	inheritance	North Arawak?					See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum	suuma	suuma		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	1	0	0	0	1		no	plant	Ana Paula B.
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	turtle: ˀdaẓau	turtle: ˀdaẓau	jabuti	unique			Also: turtle: ˀdaẓau (Melville IDS)			See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Widespread	no		Ana Paula B.
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.	tʃakui	tʃakui		inheritance						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		atʰamɨnɨ	atʰamɨnɨ		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	0	0	0	0				Ana Paula B.
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella	pʰuwatʰɨ (generic?)	pʰuwatʰɨ (generic?)		inheritance						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
cunuri (tree)	cunuri	cunuri	flora-fauna	Cunurea spruceana				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Amazonia	no
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	no	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant	Ana Paula B.
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae	watʰu	watʰu		inheritance	North Arawak					See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread South America	no		Ana Paula B.
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita	čʰimikʰiʔi	tʃʰimikʰiʔi		loan, direction unknown		Carib, Wayana simakani				See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari	kuʃi	kuʃi	pig (porco)	missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	no	a tree; not a true grape	Ana Paula B.
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no		Ana Paula B.
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.	generic yam: kʰiriča; čʰipʰuwii	generic yam: kʰiritʃa; tʃʰipʰuwii		unknown			Also: čʰipʰuwii			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no		Ana Paula B.
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola										See Language page									Ana Paula B.

Cultural Vocabulary (106)

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source	Created By
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	ˀbairii	ˀbairii		unique				Possibly Carib loan; see Akawaio pöröu			Simplex		hunting, warfare	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	ˀbaru	ˀbaru		unique			Spanish?	See other Carib (e.g. Pemon kusupará); Urarina sa:beɽe; Iquito sáhuiri; Sikuani sipari (axe); Carib (spear)	WW	%sapara	Simplex		especially for clearing fields	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool	maˀbai	maˀbai		unknown							Simplex	-n is verbal marker ("infinitival?")	can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material	ˀbuun	ˀbuun		unique										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	daẓuwan			Unknown							Simplex			See Language page	Epps Research Group
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material	generic basket: daẓuwan	generic basket: daẓuwan		missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material	kʰašuru	kʰaʃuru		loan - WW			%kasiru	Carib (e.g. Akawaio kazuru); Matses (Pano) kasɨɾɯ; Hup g'ǎç	WW	%kasuru	Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
bed	cama	cama	culture-material				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	tabai	tabai		inheritance				Possibly inherited				-bai may be some sort of classifier?		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool				missing									currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	sumara	sumara		inheritance	*sumeca	Proto-Arawak	cf. Tupi-Guarani sumara 'enemy'; Payne91 reconstructs Wap 'bow'				Simplex		arco	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material	pʰaraɨ-riˀbai	pʰaraɨ-riˀbai		unique			from 'sweep'				Other Complex	-bai may be some sort of classifier?		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	kʰanawa	kʰanawa		loan - WW			%kanawa	WW occurs in various Carib (kanau, kanawa, kanowa, kanáw); Guayabero, kanáw; Candoshi, kánó; Jivaro, kán; Matses, cano; Napo Lowland Quichua, kanu; Siriano, cũma; Yanomam (kanaw, kanae). Ultimate source sometimes claimed to be Carib, but Taylor 1957 argue	WW	%kanawa	Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	piʃani	piʃani		loan - WW			%pisana	probably originally from Port bicho 'small animal'; compare E. Tukano, (e.g. Desano pisana); Arawak (e.g. Tariana pisána); Carib (Makushi pisana; Pemon pitʃana); Kakua pitʃina. But note Quechua 'broom' pitʃana	WW	%pisana	Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	kʰɨrɨkʰɨ	kʰɨrɨkʰɨ		loan - WW			%karaka	Probably Arawak origin (see Nordenskiold 1922). Tukanoan, e.g. Wanano karaka; Arawak, e.g. Baniwa kaláka; Yanomamo, Nadeb; Macaguan takra, Sikuani wakara	WW	%karaka	Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	tʰuʃau	tʰuʃau		loan - WW			%tuʃawa	compare Pemón tusawa			Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool	t͡ʃʰipʰirari	t͡ʃʰipʰirari		semantic shift			from 'axe' (%sipara)	Via Pemon supararii; see also Akawaio suubararii; other Carib (e.g. Pemon kusupará); Urarina sa:beɽe; Iquito sáhuiri; Sikuani sipari (axe); Carib (spear)	WW	%sapara	Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
coca			narcotics				Missing										See Language page	Epps Research Group
cook food			food	warakʰa-n			Inheritance		Proto North Arawak					Simplex			See Language page	Epps Research Group
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology				missing									malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
dance (generic)			culture-mythology	kʰunaɨpʰa-n			Unknown							Simplex			See Language page	Epps Research Group
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool				missing									hunting and warfare	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology	tʰumĩĩkʰarɨ	tʰumĩĩkʰarɨ		unknown									In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
digging stick			subsistence tool				Missing										See Language page	Epps Research Group
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	kʰa-ẓanˀdaʔautʰ-ĩĩa-n	kʰa-ẓanˀdaʔautʰ-ĩĩa-n		unknown							Other Complex	-ĩĩa-n looks like some sort of "reflexive"/self-action suffix		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool	awariˀbai	awariˀbai		doubtful loan			Carib, e.g. Makiritare wadi-wadi				Other Complex	-bai may be some sort of classifier?	esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other	tʰikʰaẓi wiiẓi	tʰikʰaẓi wiiẓi		unknown							Compound	fire house		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
firewood	leña	lenha	other	ẓuwaakʰarɨ	ẓuwaakʰarɨ		inheritance		Proto North Arawak								See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	kubawatan	kubawatan		unique										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fish poison	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	subsistence tool	ukʰu			Inheritance		Proto-Arawak?					Simplex			See Language page	Epps Research Group
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool	kʰuˀbauwɨ ẓɨnaa	kʰuˀbauwɨ ẓɨnaa		doubtful calque			Carib	Local Carib lgs also have 'hook-string'; but so does Baniwa (and other Arawak?)			Compound	hook CL(?):long, string		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool	darukʰu	darukʰu		doubtful loan direction unknown			Murui Witoto	More likely Arawak > Witoto?			Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food	baɖa	baɖa		unknown							Simplex		usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food	pʰuruuma	pʰuruuma		loan - WW			%porowa	Akawaio prowa; Wapishana phuruuma; Sikuani bawa; Hodi hyowã	WW	%porowa	Simplex		agriculture	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology	kʰuwɨda	kʰuwɨda		inheritance		Proto North Arawak		May be cognate Yucuna			Simplex		multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food				missing									Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
genipap			culture-mythology				Missing										See Language page	Epps Research Group
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	mutu	mutu		inheritance?			%koto/matoko				Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool				missing									esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology	ˀbaranai	ˀbaranai		unknown										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool	tʰaraʔapʰau	tʰaraʔapʰau		unknown										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool	warakʰ-ĩĩ-apʰa-kʰiẓai	warakʰ-ĩĩ-apʰa-kʰiẓai (IDS, stove?)	stove	unique							Derived	cook-REFL?-NMLZ?-place?	agriculture?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	mukʰau	mukʰau		loan - WW			%mokawa				Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	z̨amaka	ʐamaka		inheritance		Proto Arawak		Wanderwort, Arawak source	WW	%amaka	Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	kʰuwama	-kʰuwama		unknown							Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology				missing									In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
honey	miel	mel	food	riwɨ (Santos) maˀba (IDS, = 'bee')	riwɨ (Santos) maˀba (IDS, = 'bee')		unique; inheritance				Alternate: maˀba			Simplex		only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	tʰiwaapʰa-n; waatʰapʰa-n	tʰiwaapʰa-n; waatʰapʰa-n		unknown							Simplex	-n is verbal marker ("infinitival?")		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	marii	marii		loan (into protolg?), direction unknown - WW			%marije	Probably Carib > Baniwa-Tariana (+ Wapishana?) subgroup. Arawak: Wapishana, Baniwa, Tariana; Carib: Trio, Akawaio, Mapoyo, Yabarana, Pemon, Wai Wai, Waimiri-Atroari; Nadëb; possibly Ocaina	WW	%mariye	Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
machete	machete	facão	culture-material	supaŗa	supaŗa		loan - WW			%sipara/sapere	Other Carib languages: Pemon, kasupara; Yanomami sipaɾa; Urarina sa:beɽe ?	WW	%sapara	Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool	akʰu	akʰu		loan			Carib	also Pemón ako; Alternate: imiʔitʰan-naa			Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other	kʰurara	kʰurara		loan			Spanish/Portuguese	Nheengatu kurara; Northern Emberá korrá	WW	%kurara	Simplex		may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	kʰaritʰa	kʰaritʰa		loan			Span/Port 'carta', via Carib?	form only attested in Macushi, but data missing for Akawaio and others.			Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool	daɨri'bai	daɨri'bai		unknown							Other Complex	-bai may be some sort of classifier?		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other				Missing										See Language page	Epps Research Group
plate	plato	prato	culture-material	pʰarapʰi	pʰarapʰi		loan			%parapi, via Carib	Compare Akawaio. Attested various Carib and Arawak lgs. Possibly related to Span. plato. Strange p~k correspondence, but otherwise look like same etymon. Meaning varies between clay plate and clay pot.	WW	%karapi	Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	kʰaʔɨẓa-kʰin	kʰaʔɨẓa-kʰin		inheritance	*kopi		cf. Payne91				Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology	šikʰi-šikʰi	ʃikʰi-ʃikʰi		doubtful loan			onomatopoeia, but cf. Wayampi; also Cayapa, Bora, Jivaroan				Onomatopoeic			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
salt	sal	sal	food	d̨i̵u	d̨i̵u		loan - WW	*idɨwɨ	Proto Arawak	%jukira				Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
school	escuela	escola	acculturation				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	čʰipʰirari	tʃʰipʰirari		loan - WW			via Carib, %sipara/sapere	Ultimate source Spanish; see Akawaio suubararii; other Carib (e.g. Pemon kusupará); Urarina sa:beɽe; Iquito sáhuiri; Sikuani sipari (axe); Carib (spear)	WW	%sapara	Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food	waiwai; waɨnii (also 'manioc, cassava')	waiwai; waɨnii (also 'manioc, cassava')		unknown										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	kʰaiwara	kʰaiwara	sugar cane	loan			Carib				Simplex			See Language page	Ana Paula B.
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food				missing									agriculture	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material	dyɨwɨẓɨadaʔɨ	dyɨwɨẓɨadaʔɨ		unknown				Also: anabaj (Santos 2006)						See Language page	Ana Paula B.
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food	niz̧u	niʐu		unknown							Simplex		word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
tobacco (native)			narcotics	suuma			Inheritance	*yɨma	Proto Arawak		Sikuani tséːma; Cuiva tséma; Cofan ccumba;			Simplex			See Language page	Epps Research Group
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool				missing									agriculture	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool	uɽaɽi	uɽaɽi		loan - WW			%wirari	Most direct donor or recipient is Akawaio					hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
wax	cera	cera	other	maˀbaiˀba	maˀbaiˀba		unique								from 'bee'		See Language page	Ana Paula B.
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	ẓuruwa-n	ẓuruwa-n		inheritance		Proto North Arawak					Simplex	-n is verbal marker ("infinitival?")	agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology				missing									a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	generic basket: daẓuwan	daẓuwan		unique										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture				missing									Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology				missing									Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	kʰamičʰa-n	kʰamitʃʰa-n		loan			Spanish							See Language page	Ana Paula B.
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	uia-ʔu durunai	uia-ʔu durunai		unknown										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	pʰuura	pʰuura		loan, direction unknown			Carijona							See Language page	Ana Paula B.
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	ẓuupʰa	ẓuupʰa		unknown										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology														See Language page	Ana Paula B.
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture	fermented drink: riwɨnii	fermented drink: riwɨnii		inheritance? - WW; unknown			%pajaru						prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
bottom grinding stone			manufacture				missing									if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
digging stick			subsistence tool				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture				missing									use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page	Ana Paula B.
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
spearthrower			subsistence tool				missing										See Language page	Ana Paula B.
house			other	kʰaˀbaɨnɨ	kʰaˀbaɨnɨ		inheritance			Proto-Arawak							See Language page	Ana Paula B.

Grammatical Data (226)

Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Phonemicized Form	Orthographic Form	Grammatical Notes	Source	Created By
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no				Santos, 2006: 32	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no			Some consonants have "traces" of ejection or glottalization, but not enough for phonemic contrast.	Santos, 2006: 32	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no				Santos, 2006: 32	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	yes				Santos, 2006:34	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no				Santos, 2006:34	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no				Santos, 2006:69	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	no				Santos, 2006:69	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no				Santos, 2006:69	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no				Santos, 2006:32	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no				Santos, 2006:32	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no				Santos, 2006:32	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	yes			"Nasalization spreads to the right from a nasal vowel, carring through m, n, e w, but stopping just before any other consonant or before epenthetic a. The spread of nasalization crosses the border between prestem and stem."	Santos, 2006:58	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		yes			When the vowel /a/ occurs immediately after a consonant preceded by the vowel /i/, the /a/ harmonizes and becomes [ɛ].	Santos, 2006:47	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes				Santos 2006:23	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	yes				Santos 2006:108	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	yes				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no info				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes				Santos, 2006: 156	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	yes				Santos, 2006: 125	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no				Santos, 2006:139	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes			Sets include masculine/feminine, animacy, alienable/inalienable, shape, location, and others. Each is treated as a noun class.	Santos, 2006:139	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	36			Includes gender, use, place, shape…	Santos, 2006:3	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes			The same morphology used for distinguishing noun class can also be used for noun classification, with the difference being in how the morphology affects the meaning of the noun. For example, the suffix "-ɖap" meaning (roughly) habitat. When used as noun c	Santos, 2006:115	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	yes				Santos, 2006:139	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no				Santos, 2006:139	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	no				Santos, 2006:	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	yes				Santos, 2006: 160	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no				Santos, 2006: 126	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes				Santos, 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no info				Santos, 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	yes				Santos, 2006: 118	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	no				Santos, 2006:125	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no				Santos, 2006: 143	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes	,-nau	,-nau		Santos, 2006: 143	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no				Santos, 2006: 143	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no				Santos, 2006: 143	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no				Santos, 2006: 143	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no				Santos, 2006: 143	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	yes				Santos, 2006: 185	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no info				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	yes	aimaakan ("thing, something")			Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	no				Santos, 2006: 185	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no				Santos, 2006: 159	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	2			proximal and distant	Santos 2006: 188	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no				Santos 2006:188	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		yes			Masculine/Feminine	Santos, 2006: 185	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no			Only realized as masculine (default).	Santos, 2006: 185	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no				Santos, 2006: 186	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no				Santos, 2006: 185	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no				Santos 2006:185	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	yes			Object, beneficiary/recipient	Santos, 2006: 215	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	3				Santos 2006:215	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no			Other grammatical relations (dative, instrumental, etc.) can get case markings, but they are not the primary--and certainly not the only--set.	Santos 2006:216	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	yes				Santos, 2006: 215	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no				Santos, 2006: 215	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes			Usually suffixes.	Santos, 2006: 215	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no				Santos, 2006: 215	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no				Santos, 2006: 215	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no				Santos, 2006: 215	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no				Santos, 2006: 215	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no			Comitative marked with unattached/free word, whereas instrumental is a case suffix.	Santos 2006:216	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no				Santos, 2006: 197-201	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	yes			"whole hand"	Santos, 2006: 197-201	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	yes			Word construction changes with each set of 10.	Santos, 2006: 197-201	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no				Santos, 2006: 197-201	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	yes			5 = whole hand (with 1, 2, 3, and 4 meaning respective number of digits of the hand)	Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes	1S: ũ-, 1P: wa-, 2S: pɨ-, 2P: ɨ-, 3S(M): ɨ-, -ɨʐ, 3S(F): u-, -ɨʐu, 3P: i-	1S: ũ-, 1P: wa-, 2S: pɨ-, 2P: ɨ-, 3S(M): ɨ-, -ɨʐ, 3S(F): u-, -ɨʐu, 3P: i-		Santos, 2006: 101	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no				Santos, 2006: 101	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no				Santos, 2006: 131	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes				Santos, 2006: 131	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	yes			There are classifiers for both possessed and unpossessed; the function appears mostly to help semantically.	Santos, 2006: 121	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no				Santos 2006:99	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	yes	,-t, -n, -ʐ	,-t, -n, -ʐ	Not clear what the situations are that call for the different affixes. Could be phonologically influenced.	Santos 2006:132	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no				Santos 2006:99	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	yes				Santos 2006:102	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	yes				Santos 2006:102	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no				Santos 2006:102	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	no			Adjectives are formed by taking a word from a different word class and adding an adjectivizing affix (which varies based on semantic goal).	Santos 2006:176	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	yes				Santos 2006:179	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	yes	,-kaɽɨ	,-kaɽɨ		Santos 2006:136	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes	,-paɨʐu	,-paɨʐu		Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	yes	,-kaɽɨ	,-kaɽɨ		Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	yes	,-ʧ, -ɖ, -t	,-ʧ, -ɖ, -t		Santos 2006:157	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no				Santos, 2006; 203	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	no				Santos 2006:167	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no				Santos 2006:167	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		no				Santos 2006:167	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no				Santos, 2006: 116	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes			Relatively few (including past, present, imperative, future).	Santos, 2006: 116	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no				Santos, 2006: 116	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no				Santos, 2006: 116	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no				Santos, 2006:164	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no				Santos, 2006:164	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	no				Santos, 2006: 165	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no				Santos, 2006:164	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no info				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no info				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no info				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		yes	man	man	Occurs as its own word, meaning "maybe."	Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no				Santos 2006: 169	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	no				Santos 2006: 169	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	no				Santos 2006: 169	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no				Santos 2006: 164	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no				Santos 2006: 166	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no				Santos 2006: 169	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	no info				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no				Santos 2006: 169	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no			SVO	Santos, 2006: 217	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no				Santos, 2006: 217	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no				Santos, 2006: 217	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	yes				Santos, 2006: 217	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no				Santos, 2006: 217	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no				Santos, 2006: 201	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes				Santos, 2006: 201	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	no				Santos, 2006: 222	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	yes				Santos, 2006: 222	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	yes				Santos, 2006: 179	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	yes				Santos, 2006: 179	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes				Santos, 2006: 188	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no				Santos, 2006: 188	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes				Santos, 2006: 198	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Noun-Num		no				Santos, 2006: 198	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes				Santos, 2006: 247	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no				Santos, 2006: 247	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no				Santos, 2006: 247	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no				Santos, 2006: 247	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes				Santos, 2006: 234	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	yes				Santos, 2006: 210	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no				Santos, 2006: 210	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no				Santos, 2006: 210	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no				Santos, 2006: 210	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no				Santos, 2006: 210	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		yes				Santos, 2006: 187	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no				Santos, 2006: 187	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no				Santos, 2006: 187	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no				Santos, 2006: 187	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no				Santos, 2006: 187	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	yes				Santos, 2006: 160	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no				Santos, 2006: 160	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no				Santos, 2006: 160	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no				Santos, 2006: 160	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no				Santos, 2006: 160	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes			In addition to pronominal prefixes. Do not usually co-occur; prefixes typically occur when there are multiple arguments, rather than just a subject/object.	Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes			In addition to free pronouns. Do not usually co-occur; prefixes typically occur when there are multiple arguments, rather than just a subject/object.	Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	yes			3rd singular.	Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	yes			Usually marked or coupled with a prepostion or directional.	Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes	,-aːk	,-aːk		Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	yes	,-iɲ	,-iɲ		Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes	,-ka	,-ka		Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	yes	,-at	,-at	Not a dedicated morpheme. Also used for designating recipient and dative.	Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	yes				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes	,-kiɖ	,-kiɖ		Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	yes				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	yes	au-na	au-na (where -na is a sort of completion/deictic affix)		Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	yes				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no			Only presence of q-word.	Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	yes				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	yes			Possible, not always grammatical, and usually used under circumstances where a subject is being described with an adjective or a location.	Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	yes				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		yes	,-ʐ	,-ʐ		Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	yes	,-ʐu	,-ʐu		Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no			Each verb bears its own morphology.	Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no				Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	yes	,-aːn	,-aːn	Referred to as an "interrupter" or "intermitent" event.	Santos 2006	Ana Paula Brandao, Amanda Meeks

Ethnographic Information

Current population (ethnicity)	Current population (speakers)	Former population estimate	Subsistence preference	Subsistence notes	Density	Sedentism	Ecotome (riverine/interfluvial/coastal/desert/savannah/etc.)	Social hierarchies	Multilingualism (rare/occasional/common)	Contact languages	Marriage pattern	Notes	Source	Created By
		large	AG		dense	sedentary