Pitta-Pitta

Family
Pama-Nyungan
Region
Australia
ISO 639-3
pit
Location
-23.87°, 139.68°
Notes
Features
Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information
Data Sources
none


Basic Vocabulary (186)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes General Notes Source
1pl.excl nosotros (exclusivo) nós (exclusivo) grammar ngana inheritance
1pl.incl nosotros (inclusivo) nós (inclusivo) grammar ngana inheritance
1sg yo eu grammar ngantya semantic shift
2pl ustedes vocês grammar nhura inheritance
2sg xx xx grammar inpa inheritance
3pl ellos/ellas eles/elas grammar thana inheritance
3sg el/ella ele/ela grammar [missing] missing
above encima, arriba acima location yakirli ngalpa unique
again de nuevo, otra vez de novo grammar lhayingurru unique
all todo todos other [missing] missing
and y e grammar [missing] missing
ankle tobillo tornozelo body marti inheritance
armpit axila, sobaco axila body kilyikilyi inheritance
ashamed xx xx mental yurrhathimarru unique
ashes xx xx environment 3180 loan direction unknown
at en, a em, a location -ina unique
back espalda costas body kuku inheritance
bad mal mal quality thawinya unique
be alive xx xx body kimpa semantic shift
belly barriga barriga body tyurnrtu inheritance?
below abajo, debajo abaixo location kawurrhu unique
big grande grande quality mangkurra inheritance
bite morder morder body paca inheritance
black negro preto colour tyimpa inheritance
blood sangre sangue body noorkey unique
blow soplar soprar body punka unique
blunt xx xx quality murnrtu inheritance
bone hueso osso body bena inheritance
boomerang xx xx manufacture pipapurrhu doubtful loan
breast pecho, seno peito body ngamanya inheritance
breathe respirar respirar body ngari inheritance
burn quemar queimar environment yanhthi unique
chew masticar, mascar mastigar body [missing] missing
child niño, niña criança human 351 unique
climb subir subir motion kathi inheritance
cloud nube nuvem environment parnrtara unique
cold frío frio quality mali inheritance
come venir vir motion pathi unknown
cook cocinar cozinhar impact watyi inheritance?
count contar contar mental pinti inheritance
cry llorar chorar mental tuñci inheritance
cut xx xx impact kurri inheritance
die/be dead morir morrer state ityi unique
dig cavar cavar impact paka_x001E_ inheritance
dingo/wolf fauna [missing] missing
dirty sucio sujo quality [missing] missing
dream soñar sonhar mental [missing] missing
drink beber, tomar beber body thima unique
dry seco seco quality yarlka inheritance
dust polvo poeira environment thurrka inheritance
ear oreja orelha body ngarrawa inheritance
earth/soil tierra terra environment mayi inheritance
eat comer comer body thatyi inheritance
egg huevo ovo fauna tyikula unique
eye ojo olho body miyi inheritance
faeces heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol fezes body kuna inheritance
fall caer cair motion kurrha inheritance
far lejos longe quality warrhara inheritance
fat/grease grasa gordura body thuta inheritance
father padre, papá pai kinship yapiri inheritance
fear miedo medo mental thalala inheritance
feather pluma pena fauna thathi unique
fire fuego fogo environment maka inheritance
fish xx xx fauna kupi inheritance
flow fluir fluir motion kirra inheritance
flower flor flor environment [missing] missing
fly volar voar motion muki unique
fog niebla, neblina nevoeira, bruma, neblina environment kutukutu unique
foot pie body thina inheritance
fruit fruta fruta flora yanhthurrhu unique
good bueno bom quality mayarli unique
grow crecer crescer state [missing] missing
hair (of head) cabello cabelo body [missing] missing
hand mano mão body maramara inheritance
head cabeza cabeça body karti inheritance
hear oír ouvir mental nharrawa unique
heavy pesado pesado quality manta inheritance
hide esconder esconder motion 876 unique
hit golpear, pegar bater impact pithi inheritance
hit (with hand) xx xx impact [missing] missing
hold correr, asegurar, sostener segurar other parta inheritance
how? como como grammar withila unique
if si se grammar thala unique
in/inside dentro, adentro dentro location murnuina unique
intestines intestinos intestinos body thulytyi unique
itch hormiguear, sentir comezón coçar body puluna wanytyi unique
kill matar matar impact pithi inheritance
know/be knowledgeable saber, conecer saber, conhecer mental wangama semantic shift
lake lago lago environment [missing] missing
laugh reír rir mental wiya inheritance
leaf hoja folha environment karrapati unique
left/left hand izquierdo esquerdo location/body tharawa unique
leg/foot pierna perna body pirna inheritance
lie down acostarse, echarse deitar motion thumpa unique
lightning rayo, relámpago relampago environment pirlpa unique
liver hígado figado body kalu inheritance
long largo comprido, longo quality cuwarrhi unique
louse piollo, piojo piolho fauna nyirlpa unique
lung pulmón pulmão body [missing] missing
man/male hombre homem human palku inheritance
meat/flesh carne carne fauna 711 inheritance
moon luna lua environment tyangi unique
mother madre, mamá mãe kinship ngamari inheritance
mouth boca boca body parla unique
name nombre nome human [missing] missing
nape base del cuello, nuca nuca body marrhipirna unique
near/close cerca de perto quality mungkatha inheritance
neck cuello pescoço body irlka unique
new nuevo novo quality [missing] missing
night noche noite time mirtikarra unique
no/not no não grammar malhu loan Warluwaric
nose nariz nariz body milya inheritance
old viejo velho quality kupakupa unique
one uno um number ngururu unique
open/uncover abrir abrir other marrha unique
other otro outro grammar nguruirri inheritance
person/human being persona pessoa human palku unique
pimple xx xx body wilpa unique
rain lluvia chuva environment 32 unique
red rojo vermelho colour kurrhi loan Kalkatungu
right/right hand derecha direita location/body [missing] missing
road/path camino caminho manufacture pirrhapampu unique
roof xx xx manufacture [missing] missing
root raíz raiz flora [missing] missing
rotten podrido podre quality kutya inheritance
sand arena areia environment wayirrhi unique
say decir dizer mental tharupali inheritance
scratch rascar rasgar impact nyinta inheritance
see ver ver mental nhatyi inheritance
sharp afilado, filudo, filoso afiado quality [missing] missing
shoot tirar, disparar, balear atirar impact [missing] missing
short corto curto quality marnrtarti unique
shoulder hombro ombro body paparla unique
sick xx xx body [missing] missing
sit sentar(se) sentar state nhangka inheritance
skin piel pele body nunderry inheritance
sky cielo céu environment rtikarrha loan direction unknown
sleep dormir dormir body mutyi inheritance
small pequeño pequeno quality thuyuyu loan direction unknown
smell (tr/intr) xx xx body warrhuwa inheritance
smoke humo fumaça environment kuthu inheritance
spit escupir cuspir body ngalytya inheritance
split partir, dividir rachar, dividir, partir impact palka inheritance
squeeze estrujar, exprimir espremer impact nhulhi unique
stab/pierce apuñalar, acuchillar apunhalar impact kanangka unique
stand estar de pié ficar em pé state tharrhka inheritance
star estrella estrela environment tyinpi loan Mayi
steal robar roubar other nhitha loan direction unknown
stone piedra pedra environment mirrhiwirni unique
suck chupar chupar body punhtha inheritance
sun sol sol time warlka inheritance
sweat sudar suor, suar body wilhtha inheritance
swell hincharse inchar body puwa inheritance
swim nadar nadar motion yurta unique
tail cola, rabo rabo body kurlka inheritance
that ese/esa esse grammar [missing] missing
thick grueso, gordo, espeso grosso quality tharrha(wa) unique
thin delgado fino quality tyangka unique
think pensar pensar mental [missing] missing
this este/esta este grammar [missing] missing
three tres tres number barcoola noora unique
throat garganta garganta body [missing] missing
throw tirar, lanzar atirar, jogar impact thawi inheritance
thunder truenos trovão environment mungka unique
tie up/fasten atar, amarrar amarrar impact karrha inheritance
tongue lengua lingua body tharli inheritance
tooth diente dente body mirlka inheritance
true xx xx quality rtutyarrha unique
turn girar, volter, torcer virar other wangkuma unique
two dos dois number parrhkula inheritance
vomit vomitar vomitar body kawa inheritance
walk caminar, andar andar motion pirnapurti unique
water agua agua environment ngapu inheritance
wet mojado molhado quality [missing] missing
what? que, qué que grammar minha inheritance
when? cuando quando grammar winku unique
where? donde onde grammar winhtha inheritance
white blanco branco colour warrhaputha inheritance
who? quien, quién quem grammar wara inheritance
wife esposa esposa kinship [missing] missing
wind viento vento environment thurrhupu inheritance
wing ala asa body kilka inheritance
woman/female mujer mulher human parratya unique
work trabajar trabalhar other [missing] missing
yawn bostezar bocejar body ngulukurrha unique
yellow amarillo amarelo colour kukarrhi unique


Flora Fauna Vocabulary (9)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Linnean Name Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Etymology Notes Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Range of Term Word Structure Word Structure Notes Classifier Classifier Notes Hypernym Source Association with Social Categories Ritual/Mythologically Significant Ritual Notes Food Source Food Notes Medicinal Medicinal Notes How Collected Who Collects How Prepared Psychotropic Psychotropic Notes Traded Trade Notes Distribution Habitat Dangerous Ethnobiology Notes Species Notes General Notes
tree árbol arvore flora-fauna mulka unique
ant (generic) hormiga formiga flora-fauna thitha loan direction unknown
bird pajaro, ave passaro flora-fauna paya inheritance
blowfly/housefly mosca mosca flora-fauna muki inheritance
dog (camp, domestic) perro cachorro flora-fauna piyawarli unique
grass hierba, pasto capim, grama flora-fauna pukarrha inheritance
kangaroo (generic) flora-fauna matyumpa inheritance
snake (generic) culebra, serpiente cobra flora-fauna kunderry loan direction unknown
spider araña aranha flora-fauna kupu loan direction unknown


Cultural Vocabulary (8)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes Word Structure Word Structure Notes General Notes Source
rope/string mecate, cuerda, soga corda culture [missing] missing
bottom grinding stone manufacture [missing] missing
digging stick subsistence tool kukuru unique
winnow aventar, tirar (sementes) joeirar manufacture rtannga unique
top grinding stone metate, mano; piedra de moler metate, mano manufacture [missing] missing
spearthrower subsistence tool wamirra inheritance
spear lanza lança subsistence tool makuwarta unique
house other kunti inheritance


Grammatical Data (295)
Category Grammatical Feature Grammatical Feature: Notes Feature Status Grammatical Notes Source Etymology Notes General Notes Phylogenetic Code
Phonology - Segmental Pre-/post-nasalized stops Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive. No 187 0
Phonology - Segmental Glottalized/ejective consonants Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative] No 187 0
Phonology - Segmental Palatalized stops Phonemic contrast yes 187 1
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic vowel length Does the language have long and short vowels? yes 188 1
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels No 187 0
Phonology - Segmental Complex onsets Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme No 188 0
Phonology - Segmental No codas *(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained] No 189 0
Phonology - Segmental Word-final coda required Do all syllables end in a consonant? No 188 0
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive tones Note how many contrastive tones No 191 0
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive stress Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference? No 191 0
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments No 187 0
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to? No 192 0
Phonology - Suprasegmental Vowel harmony No 192 0
Morphology - General Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb) Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number] No 201 0
Morphology - General Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes Stem change, tone No 193, 201 0
Morphology - General Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes) Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word yes 201 1
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing There are many more prefixes than suffixes No 193, 201 0
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing There are many more suffixes than prefixes yes 193, 201 1
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different No 193, 201 0
Morphology - General Reduplication: full The full morpheme is reduplicated yes 212 1
Morphology - General Reduplication: partial Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated yes 212 1
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive NN compounding Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced yes 211 1
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV serialization (without compounding) Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection No 201 0
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV compounding Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word No 211 0
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap' No 211 0
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Auxiliary verb(s) There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs No 201 0
Morphology - Incorporation Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process Verb contains nominal segment No 201 0
Morphology - Incorporation Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns No 201 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classes/genders Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP No 192 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Number of noun classes/genders Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders No 192 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders) Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain. No 192 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates Masculine, feminine, neuter N/A 192 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates N/A 192 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system Animate/inanimate, human/non-human N/A 192 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only yes 194 1
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates N/A 192 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates N/A 192 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification "Repeater" classifiers Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot" N/A 192 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals) Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals N/A 192 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.' N/A 192 0
Nominal Categories - Number Singular number may be marked on the noun Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups No 201 0
Nominal Categories - Number Plural affix on noun yes 201 1
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun No 201 0
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by reduplication of noun No 201 0
Nominal Categories - Number Plural word/clitic No 201 0
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked on human or animate nouns only No 201 0
Nominal Categories - Number Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns No 194 0
Nominal Categories - Number Unique associative plural marker e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them' No info x
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Definite or specific articles Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Indefinite or non-specific article or marker No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you No 194 0
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound) N/A 201 0
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number) Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system yes 194 1
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.) No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3sg pronouns yes 194 1
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3pl pronouns No 194 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns No 194 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Formal/informal distinction in pronouns Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns No 194 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Reflexive pronouns e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix No 206 0
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Adpositions mark core NPs Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: number of cases Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun yes 193 1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: symmetrical All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity) yes 196 1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: asymmetrical Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates No 196 0
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: suffix or postpositional clitic yes 193 1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: prefix or prepositional clitic No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: infix or inpositional clitic No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: stem change No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: tone No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: comitative = instrumental Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument' No 199 0
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-2 At least some part of the system involves base-2 yes 238 1
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-5 At least some part of the system involves base-5 No 238 0
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-10 At least some part of the system involves base-10 No 238 0
Nominal Categories - Numerals Other base (specify) 4, 20, etc. No 238 0
Nominal Categories - Numerals Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5 e.g. two = 'eye-quantity' No 238 0
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 5 'Many' or some other non-exact term used yes 238 1
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 10 'Many' or some other non-exact term used yes 238 1
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Person inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival No 193 0
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N alienable/inalienable? No 200 0
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N alienable/inalienable? yes 200 1
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent e.g. 'the boy-'s dog' yes 200 1
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head e.g. 'the boy his-dog' yes 197 1
Nominal Syntax - Possession Possessive classifiers There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities N/A 0
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of inalienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) No 197 0
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of alienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) yes 197 1
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form No 197 0
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of kin terms 'my-father' but *father No 197 0
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal) 'my-leg' but *leg yes 197 1
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man) No 197 0
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Underived adjectives There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes yes 212 1
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco N/A 0
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival) There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb No 209 0
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer) There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb yes 209 1
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song) There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb No 209 0
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive verbalizing morphology There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective yes 211 1
Nominal Syntax - Other NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently 'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary' yes 224 1
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated past marker(s) Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere yes 202 1
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. distant vs. recent past No 202 0
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. imminent vs. distant future No 202 0
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated future or non-past marker(s) yes 202 1
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: prefix No 201 0
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: suffix yes 201 1
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut No 201 0
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect suppletion No 201 0
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood yes 202 1
Verbal Categories - Mood Polite imperative morpheme There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language) No 203 0
Verbal Categories - Mood Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses No 203 0
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative) as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing' yes 203 1
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: affix on verb Inflectional marking of capacity to do something No info 225 x
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: verbal construction No info x
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: other marking No info x
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: affix on verb Modal expressing hypothesis No 220 0
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: verbal construction No 220 0
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: other marking yes 220 1
Verbal Categories - Mood Marking of expected/unexpected action or result There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected No 201 0
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal frustrative Modal expressing frustration ("in vain") No 201 0
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal habitual Modal expressing habituality No 201 0
Verbal Categories - Mood Apprehensive construction There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens' yes 202 1
Verbal Categories - Mood Reality status marking on verbs There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events' No 225 0
Verbal Categories - Mood Affect markers (positive/negative) Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative No 225 0
Verbal Categories - Directionals Directional elements affixed to the verb There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc. No 225 0
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized visual Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker No 0
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized nonvisual Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt) No 0
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized inferential Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker. No 0
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized reportive Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly' No 0
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized quotative Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse No 0
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Other evidential Any other evidential values not represented above No 0
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic N/A 0
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: part of tense system Includes portmanteau morphs N/A 0
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: separate particle N/A 0
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: modal morpheme N/A 0
Verbal Categories - Verbal number Verbal number suppletion No 201 0
Verbal Categories - Other Social interaction markers Note the type of interaction No 225 0
Word Order No fixed basic constituent order No 213 0
Word Order VS in intransitive clauses Verb precedes subject No 213 0
Word Order VS in transitive clauses No 213 0
Word Order VO in transitive clauses Verb precedes object yes 213 1
Word Order OS in transitive clauses Object precedes subject No 213 0
Word Order Preposition-Noun No 214 0
Word Order Noun-Postposition or case suffix yes 214 1
Word Order Gen-Noun Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book) yes 214 1
Word Order Noun-Gen Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John') No 214 0
Word Order Adj-Noun Adjective precedes the noun yes 214 1
Word Order Noun-Adj Adjective follows the noun No 214 0
Word Order Dem-Noun yes 214 1
Word Order Noun-Dem yes 214 1
Word Order Num-Noun No 214 0
Word Order Noun-Num yes 214 1
Word Order Noun-Rel Relative clause follows noun that it modifies No 216 0
Word Order Rel-Noun Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies yes 216 1
Word Order Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative) e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away') No 216 0
Word Order Relative clause is correlative or adjoined e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat' yes 216 1
Word Order Question word is clause initial 'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause yes 214 1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects No 196 0
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked No 196 0
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker No 196 0
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers yes 196 1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep) No 196 0
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative No 195 0
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative No 195 0
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other No 195 0
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite yes 195 1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive No 195 0
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs N/A 0
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other N/A 0
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive N/A 0
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3) N/A 0
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: split More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc. N/A 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects yes 214 1
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option) No 214 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option) No 214 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. No 214 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects No 214 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking on intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes No 201 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers No 201 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take object (P) markers No 201 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects 3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system N/A 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects 3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system N/A 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Number can be marked separately from person on the verb Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately No 201 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes N/A 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Gender distinguished in verbal person markers For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent N/A 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: indirect object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently yes 193 1
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: double object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives No 193 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: secondary object In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently No 193 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal. No 206 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reflexive: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive. No 206 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb yes 206 1
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Passive Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted No 207 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Antipassive Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages yes 207 1
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Other intransitivizing morphology There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency No 204 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: benefactive Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb yes 205 1
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: other Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb No 205 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: prefix Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb No 205 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: suffix Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb yes 205 1
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix No 205 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: serial verb or analytical construction Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization No 205 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy' Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.' No 205 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated sociative Indicates that causer participates in event No 205 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence) There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency No 205 0
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a preposed element Clausal negator is a preposed element yes 205 1
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a postposed element Clausal negator is a postposed element No 205 0
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: affix Negatives: affix No 205 0
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: particle Negatives: particle yes 205 1
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: auxiliary verb Negatives: auxiliary verb No 205 0
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: double Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas' No 205 0
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist' No 222 0
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative expression 'I don't know' Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase yes 241 1
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: interrogative particle Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle No info x
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: verb morphology Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology No info x
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: word order Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) No info x
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: intonation only Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only No info x
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Content questions: word order differs from declaratives Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.) yes 214 1
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: verbal Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position No 223 0
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: nominal Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position yes 223 1
Simple Clauses - Predication Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all) yes 223 1
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head) No 216 0
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses. No 216 0
Simple Clauses - Predication Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause N/A 216 0
Simple Clauses - Predication Relativizer is a verbal affix yes 217 1
Simple Clauses - Predication Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes) No 217 0
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions Grammaticalized verbal desiderative Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it) No 207 0
Simple Clauses - Other Clause chaining Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause. No 201 0
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked switch-reference system There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined No 218 0
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence yes 203 1
Morphology - General Does verb root reduplication have an iterative function? yes 212 1
Morphology - General Does noun root reduplication have a plural/pluractional function? No 212 0
Morphology - General Does adjective root reduplication mean ‘real’ X? No 212 0
Morphology - General Does verb root reduplication have a distributive function? No 212 0
Morphology - General Does verb root reduplication have a pluractional function? yes 212 1
Morphology - General Does noun root reduplication have an iterative function? No 212 0
Morphology - General Does adjective root reduplication mean ‘fake’ X? No 212 0
Morphology - General Does adjective root reduplication mean ‘very’ X? yes 212 1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Does the language have ergative and instrumental syncretism? yes 193 1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Does the language have a distinct genitive case? No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Is the locative related to the ergative with vowel change? No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Is case marked on just one word in an NP? No 214 0
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Is case marked on all (non-pronominal) words in an NP? yes 214 1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Are any subordinate verbs (or whole clauses) marked with case to indicate their function? yes 217-8 1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Does ergative mark discourse functions of focus/unexpectedness? No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Derivation Is there a evidence for derivational morphology being distinct from inflectional on nouns? yes to any of HG 95-97 entails yes to this; yep; this is more general but not just about derivation (would also include proprietive, for example, not necessarily derivation that changes word class) yes 199 1
Nominal Categories - Number Does the language have a minimal/augment system? No 200-201 0
Nominal Categories - Number Does the language have a unit augment system? No 200-201 0
Nominal Categories - Number Does the language mark dual on nouns? yes 200-201 1
Nominal Categories - Number Does the language mark plural on nouns? yes 200-201 1
Nominal Categories - Number Does the language have group/collective nominal suffixes? No 200-201 0
Nominal Categories - Number Does the language have suppletive plural verbs? No 200-201 0
Nominal Categories - Number Does the language have suppletive plural adjectives? No 200-201 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Does the language have bound pronouns? yes to any of HG 173-175 entails yes to this; not necessarily? - CB No 193 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Are the bound pronouns distinct from the free pronouns? N/A 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Does the language mark moiety distinctions in pronouns? No 194 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Does the language mark generational distinctions in pronouns? No 194 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Are 'who' and 'what' distinct words? yes 195 1
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Is there an inclusive/exclusive distinction in the dual? No 194 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Is there an inclusive/exclusive distinction in the plural? No 194 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Is there a gender distinction in third person dual pronouns? No 194 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Are there clitic pronouns? No 194 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Are there object clitic pronouns? No 194 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Are there distinct possessive and IO pronouns? No 195 0
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories When there are both object and subject clitic pronouns, does the object pronoun follow the subject one? N/A 0
Simple Clauses - Discourse Is there a focus position? include the position in the ‘form’ notes yes 214 1
Simple Clauses - Discourse Is there a topic position? include the position in the ‘form’ notes yes 214 1
Simple Clauses - Negation Is verbal negation a separate word? related to, and maybe equivalent to, HG 206-207 (not equivalent if verbal negation is being treated separately from clausal negation) yes 214 1
Simple Clauses - Negation Does the negative marker precede the verb? related to, and maybe equivalent to, HG 203 (not equivalent if verbal negation is being treated separately from clausal negation) yes 214 1
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Are there second position clausal clitics? yes 221 1
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Is tense marked on pronouns? yes 194 1
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Are there predicative clitics (e.g. Darkinyung grammar p35) No 223 0
Simple Clauses - Tense Does the language have tense/mood/etc particles (free words)? No 201 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Is reflexive/reciprocal marked on the verb? =yes to any of HG 188-190; not necessarily; e.g. YN has a reflexive marker but it doesn’t go on the verb. yes 206 1
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Does reflexive/reciprocal change the conjugation class? No 206 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Is there a reflexive/reciprocal particle? No 206 0
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Is the passive typically used only with adversative semantics? N/A 0
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Is there an inchoative suffix? yes 210 1
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Is there a distinct present tense verbal suffix? yes 201 1
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Is there a continuous aspect suffix? No 204 0
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Is there a punctual aspect suffix? No 204 0
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Can tense and aspect cooccur? Maybe 204 1
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Is tense marked on nouns? yes 218 1
Verbal Categories - Mood Do positive commands take the same morphology as negative commands? yes 203 1
Verbal Categories - Mood Is a negative command formed from a nominalised verb (eg. "no talking!")? No 203 0
Verbal Categories - Other Is the verb ‘say’ the same as the verb ‘do’? yes 241 1
Verbal Categories - Other Does the language have body part compound verbs? No 240-241 0
Verbal Categories - Other Are there verbal agreement clitics? No 201 0
Verbal Categories - Other Is there a verb 'be'? yes 223 1
Verbal Categories - Other Are there verb conjugation classes? No 201 0
Verbal Categories - Other Is there a conjugation for uninflecting verbs? No 201 0
Verbal Categories - Other Is there a grammatical category of associated motion? yes 204 1
Verbal Categories - Other Does the language have kinship verbs? That is, are the words which designate kinship relations such as ‘mother’ and ‘father’ verbs in the language? No 235 0
Verbal Categories - VerbalNumber Does the language have suppletive plural nouns? No 200-201 0
Word Order Are there discontinuous NP constituents? No info x
Word Order Is word order fixed in noun phrases? No 215 0
Word Order Is word order fixed in verb phrases? No 213 0
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: second position clitics Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. No 214 0
Phonology - Segmental Prestopped segments list which segments in the ‘form’ column No 187 0


Ethnographic Information
Current Population (speakers) Former Population Estimate Subsistence Preference Density Sedentism Ecotome Marriage Pattern Notes Source
medium HG low mobile yes