Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Yagua

Family: Peba-Yaguan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: yad
Location: -3.43°, -72.22°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data

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Data Sources: Payne, Doris L. and Payne, Thomas E. 1990. Yagua. In Derbyshire, Desmond C. and Pullum, Geoffrey K. (eds.), Handbook of Amazonian Languages, 249-474. Berlin/New York: Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Powlison, Esther and Paul S. Powlison. 2007. Yagua. Intercontinental Dictionary Series, ed. Mary Ritchie Key. http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/ids/ Powlison, Paul (recop.). 1995. Diccionario yagua-castellano. Serie Lingüística Peruana no. 35. ILV, Lima.

Basic Vocabulary (191)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar	nuy	nũj	unique			See Language page
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	vuñi	wuɲi	unique		no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted	See Language page
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	day	daj	unique		For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms	See Language page
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	jirye	xirje	unique			See Language page
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	ji	xi	unique			See Language page
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	riy	rij	unique			See Language page
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	nini	nı̃nı̃	unique			See Language page
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	ncha ("encima de"); vata- (adv)	ntʃa; vata-	doubtful loan	Yucuna tʃa, Kakua tʃãʔ		See Language page
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar	jnay; junay; -ntiy (do sthg again)	xnay; xu:na:j; -ntiy	unique			See Language page
all	todo	todos	other	nuñi; tita; titaju	nu:ɲi; ti:ta; ti:ta:xu:	unique			See Language page
and	y	e	grammar	jarye; va(interr.)	xarje; va:				See Language page
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body	numutu (ju)vichiy; numutu rivasiy	numutú (ju)víchij; numutú rivjasíj	unique			See Language page
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body	numutojariy; numutojo	numuto:xarij; numuto:xo	unique			See Language page
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	pupujuru	pupuxuru	unique			See Language page
at	en, a	em, a	location	("a/en") -jiva; -ju; nacho; -mu/ ("en") -jimu; -niy; -va	-xiva; -xu:; na:tʃo:; -mu:/ -ximu; -nij; -va				See Language page
back	espalda	costas	body	dunu; runu	dunu; runu	unique			See Language page
bad	mal	mal	quality	javityurya	xawitjurja	unique			See Language page
bark	corteza	casca	environment	{-jay}	xaj	unique			See Language page
belly	barriga	barriga	body	pude	punde	unique			See Language page
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location	jare; jariy (suffix with -ra is used as a rel. pn	xare; xarij	unique			See Language page
big	grande	grande	quality	jami	xãmı̃	unique			See Language page
bite	morder	morder	body	sado	sado	unique			See Language page
black	negro	preto	colour	vadacu-	wandaku	unique			See Language page
blood	sangre	sangue	body	nda	nda	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Matses intáʔ		See Language page
blow	soplar	soprar	body	duye; duje (as in wind); duvuye (repeated)	duje:; duxe; duvuje:	unique			See Language page
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body	duserunu	duserunu:	unique			See Language page
bone	hueso	osso	body	{-du}	ndu	unique			See Language page
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	dutuy	ndutuj	unique			See Language page
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	narye	na:rje:	unique			See Language page
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	nucha; pisiye (t.); pisi; rupay (int.)	nu:tʃa; pisije:; pisi; rupaj	unique			See Language page
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body	sumutuy	su:mutuj	unique			See Language page
child	niño, niña	criança	human	dera	ndera	unique			See Language page
climb	subir	subir	motion	jasumiy	xasumij	unique			See Language page
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment	nuvachiy (Spanish loan?), rapuryeje	nuwatʃij, rapurjexe	loan	Spanish		See Language page
cold	frío	frio	quality	canuvu-	kanuwũ	unique			See Language page
come	venir	vir	motion	jniy	xnij	unique			See Language page
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	mitiy; mutivye	mitij; mutivje	unique			See Language page
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality	sitenu	sı̃tenu	unique			See Language page
count	contar	contar	mental	saranu	saranu	unique			See Language page
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	jnay; junay	xna:j; xu:na:j	unique			See Language page
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	jaruy;	xaru:j	unique			See Language page
day	día	dia	time	jnda	xnda	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Ashuar kínta		See Language page
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	di	ndi	unique			See Language page
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	jmiy	xmij	unique			See Language page
dingo/wolf			fauna						See Language page
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	mi (n); miju- supiy-, vasupidiy- (mod.)	mi:; mixu:, supij-, vasupidij-	unique			See Language page
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	maryisa	ma:rji:sa	unique			See Language page
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	jatu	xatu	unique			See Language page
dry	seco	seco	quality	{-cada}	kanda	unique; loan	Kokama ikana		See Language page
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality	motadi; ne jmyunusara	mo:tadi; ne xmjunusara				See Language page
dust	polvo	poeira	environment	jiru	xiru				See Language page
ear	oreja	orelha	body	{-jay}	xaj	unique			See Language page
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	mucadi	mukandi	unique			See Language page
eat	comer	comer	body	jimiy	xı̃mij	unique			See Language page
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	jivada	xiwada	unique			See Language page
eye	ojo	olho	body	jnutya	xnũtja	unique			See Language page
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body	juvudi; jvudi; vudi (also the vulgar meaning)	xu:vu:di; xvu:di; vu:di	unique			See Language page
fall	caer	cair	motion	jupatye, juy (int.); ray, rumiy (refl.)	xu:patje, xuj; ra:j, rumij	unique			See Language page
far	lejos	longe	quality	ripa, ripya	ripa, ripja	unique			See Language page
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	nidi	nı̃ndi	unique			See Language page
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	jay	xãj	loan; unique	Quechua		See Language page
fear	miedo	medo	mental	jnutay; junutay; juntay (to be afraid)	xnutaj; xu:nutaj; xu:ntaj	unique			See Language page
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	mu	mũ	unique			See Language page
fingernail	uña	unha	body	jasumuday	xasumundaj	unique			See Language page
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	jiday	xindaj	unique			See Language page
flow	fluir	fluir	motion	si	si	unique			See Language page
flower	flor	flor	environment	dabi	dabi	unique; loan	Quechua		See Language page
fly	volar	voar	motion	ratye	ratje	unique			See Language page
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment	ajeravurya	axerawũrja				See Language page
foot	pie	pé	body	numutu	numutu	unique			See Language page
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	dabi	dabi	unique			See Language page
good	bueno	bom	quality	sami	samı̃	doubtful loan	Quechua		See Language page
green	verde	verde	quality	jatya-	xatja	unique			See Language page
grow	crecer	crescer	state	javye; divay	xa:vje; divaj	unique			See Language page
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	jasiy	xasij	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Iquito		See Language page
hand	mano	mão	body	jomutu	xomutu	unique			See Language page
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	jno	hnõ	unique			See Language page
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	tuvachu	tuwãtʃu	unique			See Language page
heart	corazón	coração	body	jachiy	xatʃij	unique			See Language page
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	jinra; saransara	xinra; saransara	unique			See Language page
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	dutya (tr.); padyee (refl.)	dutja; padje:	unique			See Language page
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	juvay (person); jupati (inan. Ob.)	xu:vaj; xu:pati	unique			See Language page
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	tarati, -ti (poss. cl.)	tarati:, ti:	unique			See Language page
hot	caliente	quente	quality	vadaqui	wandaki	unique			See Language page
how?	como	como	grammar	nuy- (interr. Pref.); nutyajirya; nutyara	nu:j; nu:tjaxirja; nu:tjara	unique			See Language page
if	si	se	grammar	(~ no) netiy, teta; -tiy (conj. Clitic)	netij, teta; tij				See Language page
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	nube; vimu	nube; vimu	unique			See Language page
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	siquido (removed from body)	sikido	unique			See Language page
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body	dpurivay / purivay	dpuri:vaj; puri:vaj				See Language page
kill	matar	matar	impact	du	ndu	unique; unique			See Language page
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	datya	ndatja	doubtful loan	Quechua		See Language page
lake	lago	lago	environment	jmityo	xmitjõ	unique			See Language page
laugh	reír	rir	mental	todi	todi	unique			See Language page
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	{-vi}	wı̃	unique			See Language page
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	miday	mı̃daj	unique			See Language page
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	(upper ~) muda; (lower ~) duse	muda; duse	unique			See Language page
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	tiryo	tirjo:	unique			See Language page
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	radurya (Spanish loan?)	rãdurja	unique			See Language page
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body	cha (also "to be"); vicha, jnuy	tʃa; vitʃa, xnu:j	unique			See Language page
liver	hígado	figado	body	sucatyu	sukãtju	unique			See Language page
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	jamuca- -qui	xa:muka: ; kwi	unique			See Language page
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	dudni	ndundnı̃	unique		order Phtiraptera	See Language page
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	saritu	sari:tu	unique			See Language page
man/male	hombre	homem	human	vanu	wanu	doubtful loan, direction unknown	cf. similar forms in Yanomami, Carib		See Language page
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	saviy	sawij	unique			See Language page
moon	luna	lua	environment	vuje	wũxẽ	unique; unique			See Language page
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	jnoda	xnonda	unique			See Language page
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	musiy	musij	doubtful loan	Tanimuca, Panoan		See Language page
mouth	boca	boca	body	juto	xũto	unique			See Language page
name	nombre	nome	human	jitya	xı̃tja	unique			See Language page
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body	tunuvu (same as "neck")	tunuvu:				See Language page
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	di, nuji, tudi (adv); tivye, tiye (adj.)	di, nuxi, tudi; tivje, tije	unique			See Language page
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	jutunuvu, tunuvu	xtũunuwũ, tunuwũ	unique			See Language page
new	nuevo	novo	quality	juy-	jũj	unique			See Language page
night	noche	noite	time	nupora	nupora	unique			See Language page
no/not	no	não	grammar	ne, ni, nenu (imp.); -muy, -na, -nay (neg. suff.)	ne, ni:, nenu; mu:j, na:, na:j	unique			See Language page
nose	nariz	nariz	body	nru	nrũ	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Tikuna		See Language page
old	viejo	velho	quality	tarijevyu	tãrixebjũ	unique			See Language page
one	uno	um	number	taraqui	taraki	unique			See Language page
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	mudtarya (adj.); nantay (to be ~)	mudtarja; nantaj	unique			See Language page
other	otro	outro	grammar	da; nu; ta-; ti	da; nu:; ta; ti:	unique			See Language page
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body	divajni	diwajni	unique			See Language page
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	nijyami	nixjãmi	unique			See Language page
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	doya; mara (food item); musiy (as to punish)	doja; mara:; musij				See Language page
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	rumura; ruboda	rũmura, ruboda	doubtful loan	Zaparo umaru; Kokama amana		See Language page
red	rojo	vermelho	colour	runay-	runãj	unique			See Language page
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body	ntityuday	ɲtitjudaj	unique			See Language page
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	mantya	mãntja	unique			See Language page
root	raíz	raiz	flora	jntiy	xntij	unique			See Language page
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	purya (smells ~); puñu (~ corpse); -pu, -po (suff.)	purja; puɲu; pu; po	unique			See Language page
sand	arena	areia	environment	ticha	tı̃tʃã	unique			See Language page
say	decir	dizer	mental	htay	htaj	unique			See Language page
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact	jmuniyẽ	xmunijẽ	unique			See Language page
see	ver	ver	mental	jnuy	xnũj	unique			See Language page
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	jimyura	ximyura	unique			See Language page
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	bucha	butʃa	unique			See Language page
short	corto	curto	quality	japu- / vapu-; jinryu	xapu / vapu; xinrju	unique			See Language page
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	numuto	numutõ	unique			See Language page
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental	jvajadasa	xwãxadasã	unique			See Language page
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	masa (refl.)	ma:sa	unique			See Language page
skin	piel	pele	body	{-jay}	xaj	unique			See Language page
sky	cielo	céu	environment	jarichu	xaritʃu	loan, direction unknown	Kokama		See Language page
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	jituy	xituj	unique			See Language page
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	jamiriyu-	xamirijũ	unique			See Language page
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	jidavachiy	xindawatʃij	unique			See Language page
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	baya (int.); nari (trans.)	baja:; nari	unique		primarily transitive	See Language page
spit	escupir	cuspir	body	tochiy	totʃij	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Andoke		See Language page
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	jaruti; ruve (in halves)	xaru:ti; ruve	unique; unique			See Language page
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	muchiy	mutʃij	unique			See Language page
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact	chityiy	tʃitjij	doubtful loan	Panoan		See Language page
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	rani	rani	unique			See Language page
star	estrella	estrela	environment	darichiy	ndaritʃij	unique			See Language page
steal	robar	roubar	other	paranu	paranu	unique			See Language page
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	jipu	xipu	unique			See Language page
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	avichu	awitʃũ	unique			See Language page
suck	chupar	chupar	body	tiriy	tirij	unique			See Language page
sun	sol	sol	time	jiñi	xiɲı̃	unique			See Language page
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body	jatay	xa:ta:j	unique			See Language page
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	jasay (as in inanim. Ob.)	xasaj	unique			See Language page
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	nuniy	nũnij	doubtful loan	Panoan		See Language page
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	rupadi	rupandi	unique			See Language page
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar	nini	nı̃nı̃	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Urarina		See Language page
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	vatunu- (adj. mod.); jamu- (adj. mod.)	vatunu; xa:mu	unique			See Language page
thin	delgado	fino	quality	miriyu-; paniyo-;	miriju; panijo	unique			See Language page
think	pensar	pensar	mental	jutay; jachipityaja	xu:taj; xatʃipitjaxa	unique			See Language page
this	este/esta	este	grammar	jiñu	xiɲu	unique			See Language page
three	tres	tres	number	mumuri	mumuri	unique			See Language page
throat	garganta	garganta	body	pisiy	pisij	unique			See Language page
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	jachiy; jupatya	xatʃij; xu:patja	unique			See Language page
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	ruvatarya	ru:vatarja	unique			See Language page
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	pichu	pitʃu	unique			See Language page
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	niquejada	nikexanda	unique			See Language page
tooth	diente	dente	body	jada	xãnda	unique			See Language page
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other	nubenu	nubenu	unique		may be transitive or intransitive	See Language page
two	dos	dois	number	adajuy	andaxũj	unique			See Language page
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	cotyanuy	cotjanuj	unique			See Language page
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	vutaya	wũtajã	unique			See Language page
water	agua	agua	environment	ja	xa	unique			See Language page
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	japadi	xapandi	unique			See Language page
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	miy	mij	unique			See Language page
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	nutyerivye	nu:tjerivje	unique			See Language page
where?	donde	onde	grammar	nutiy; teta	nu:tij; teta	unique			See Language page
white	blanco	branco	colour	japaru-	xaparu	unique			See Language page
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	chi	tʃı̃	unique			See Language page
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	rimityoda	rimitjonda	unique; unique			See Language page
wind	viento	vento	environment	richo	ritʃo	unique			See Language page
wing	ala	asa	body	nipya; --jay	nipja:; xaj	unique			See Language page
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	cadnatu	kandnatu	unique; unique	also 'wife'		See Language page
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	jivay; vay	xivaj; vaj	unique			See Language page
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body	janadaya	xana:daja:	unique			See Language page
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	vasunudi	wasunũndi	unique			See Language page


1pl.excl
1pl.incl
1sg
2pl
2sg
3pl
3sg
above
again
all
and
ankle
armpit
ash
at
back
bad
bark
belly
below
big
bite
black
blood
blow
boil/pimple
bone
breast
breathe
burn
chew
child
climb
cloud
cold
come
cook
correct/true
count
cry
cut/hack
day
die/be dead
dig
dingo/wolf
dirty
dream
drink
dry
dull/blunt
dust
ear
earth/soil
eat
egg
eye
faeces
fall
far
fat/grease
father
fear
feather
fingernail
fire
flow
flower
fly
fog
foot
fruit
good
green
grow
hair (of head)
hand
head
hear
heart
heavy
hide
hit
hold
hot
how?
if
in/inside
intestines
itch
kill
know/be knowledgeable
lake
laugh
leaf
left/left hand
leg/foot
lie down
lightning
live/be alive
liver
long
louse
lung
man/male
meat/flesh
moon
mother
mountain/hill
mouth
name
nape
near/close
neck
new
night
no/not
nose
old
one
open/uncover
other
pain/painful/sick
person/human being
pound/beat
rain
red
right/right hand
road/path
root
rotten
sand
say
scratch
see
sharp
shoot
short
shoulder
shy/ashamed
sit
skin
sky
sleep
small
smoke
sniff/smell
spit
split
squeeze
stab/pierce
stand
star
steal
stick/wood
stone
suck
sun
sweat
swell
swim
tail
that
thick
thin
think
this
three
throat
throw
thunder
tie up/fasten
tongue
tooth
turn
two
vomit
walk
water
wet
what?
when?
where?
white
who?
wife
wind
wing
woman/female
work
yawn
yellow

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Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Source	Distribution	General Notes
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana	quica	kikã		unique			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	shrub
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	mutu	mutu		loan, direction unknown	Iquito muuti		See Language page
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	nurtu	nurtu		unique			See Language page	Throughout Amazonia	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis	jadatu	xãndatu		unique			See Language page	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia	samunu	samũnu		unknown			See Language page	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	a tree; not a true grape
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes	jacodiy	xakodij					See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	jityoda	xı̃tjonda		unique			See Language page
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae							See Language page
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)	janutyu	xãnũtju		unique			See Language page	Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	mudatu	mundatu		unique			See Language page	Widespread in Amazonia
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum	tanche	tantʃe					See Language page	tropical regions, especially river banks	plant
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana	riche	ritʃe					See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.	musadasiy	musandasij		loan, direction unknown	Iquito musaámɨ		See Language page	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.	cucamubi	kukambubi		unknown			See Language page		Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.	dichatu	ditʃatu		unique			See Language page
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.	purutu	purutu		loan	Quechua (via Spanish?)		See Language page		plant
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		wiče	witʃe		loan - WW	%piʃku, cf. Paéz βiča-kwe		See Language page
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala	javaya	xawaja					See Language page	secondary forests, native to Brazil	tree
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba	tónchiy	tóntʃij					See Language page	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	nuwačatu	nuwatʃatu		unique			See Language page
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae	mucomu jicha	mukomu xitʃa		unknown			See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	cuyu	kuju					See Language page	indigenous gardens	plant; tree
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']							See Language page	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	tree
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha	cachunu	katʃunu		loan - WW	%tʃuru; prob origin Quechua		See Language page
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata	mucado	mukado		unique			See Language page
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	cuyotu	kujõtu		unique			See Language page
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris	capivyera	kapibjera		loan	Tupi-Guarani		See Language page
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.	musa	musã					See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	plant
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum	muyo	mujo		unknown			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda	mutitu	mutitu					See Language page
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea	siyechiy	sijẽtʃij		doubtful loan - WW	onomatopoeic		See Language page
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.	chinriju	tʃinrixu					See Language page	secondary forest, floodplain	vine
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca	japatiy	xapatij		doubtful loan - WW	%patu (cf. %hibie)		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	plant
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria	carcha	kartʃa		loan	Spanish cucaracha?		See Language page
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu	juti	xutı̃		unique			See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua	jamiy	xamij		loan, direction unknown	Iquito kámɨ		See Language page
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)	nabischu	nambistʃũ		unique			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura	cotu	kõtu		unique			See Language page
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae	ruva	ruwa		unique			See Language page
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.	jmutyu	xmutju		unique			See Language page	Amazonia
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	janariy	xanarij		unique			See Language page
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	nibi	nimbi		semantic shift	from jaguar		See Language page	Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis	cucabnañu	kukambnãɲu					See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae	muma	muma		unique			See Language page
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family	patu (Spanish loan)	patu		unique	ref. hãmusatu		See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.	junu	xũnũ		unique			See Language page
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus	datiy	ndatij		unique			See Language page
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae	janu	xanũ		unknown	cf. %kute		See Language page
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		quiva	kiwã		unique			See Language page
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.	tatyu	tatjũ		unique			See Language page	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	shrub/tree
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	dudni	ndudnı̃		unique			See Language page
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana	jãve	xãwe		unknown			See Language page	widespread lowland SA	shrub
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis	jãnibyi	xãnibji					See Language page
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)	-so; wačuy	-so; watʃuy		doubtful loan	Pano *wasi		See Language page
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans	musaday	musandaj		loan	N. Arawak, e.g. Kabiyari máatʃaɾi		See Language page	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba	tantyasi	tantjasi		doubtful loan	Jivaroan taanta		See Language page	Widespread South America
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti	mucosiy	mukõsij					See Language page
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.	puuvay	pũũwaj		loan	Spanish (via Quechua?)		See Language page	Different types have different localized ranges
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola							See Language page
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi	jayavasuca	xajawasuka		loan	Quechua		See Language page	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	vine
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae	tono	tõno		unique			See Language page
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	jutu	xũtũ		unique			See Language page
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus	caváñu	kaváɲu					See Language page
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens	disiy	ndisij		unique			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	plant
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]	nuco	nukõ		unique			See Language page
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	muchiy	mũtʃij		unique			See Language page	Widespread
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.	numiy	numij		unique			See Language page		iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.	ramuya	ramujã		unknown			See Language page	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic							See Language page
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	nibi	ndimbi		unique			See Language page
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura							See Language page		large tree
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra	mucha	mutʃã					See Language page	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	tree
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae	rataday	ratandaj		unique			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.	jati	xatı̃		unique			See Language page
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.	cayatu	kajãtu		unique			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	didu	ndindu		unique			See Language page	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	plant
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.	yavara	jawara [from Tupi-Guarani?]					See Language page
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.	cantyu̱chiy	kantjutʃij					See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	cusivya	kusibjã		unknown			See Language page	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	jasuche	xasutʃe		doubtful loan	W. Tukanoan, e.g. Orejon xãso		See Language page	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa	judesiy	xudesij		unique			See Language page	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	trunks contain sago-like starch
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	hiɲĩnu	hiɲĩnu		unique			See Language page
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	javanu	xawanu					See Language page
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus	mumi	mumı̃		unique			See Language page
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)	cadijay	kandixaj		unknown	cf. Ingua Quechua kallamba		See Language page		prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis	janay, jasutyu	xãnaj, xãsutju		unique			See Language page
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae	sivyara	sibjarã		unique			See Language page
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes	puputu	puputu		doubtful loan - WW? onomatopoeic	%pupu		See Language page	Widespread
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)	vañu	waɲu		unique			See Language page
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.	nimyutu	nimjutu					See Language page
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana	code	kõnde					See Language page	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	palm
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica	taracuy	tarakũj		unique; doubtful loan - WW	maybe %kuli		See Language page	Widespread
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea	ratyujo	rãtjuxo		unknown			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes	pṵriy	pũrji	pijuayo, pifayo			Arawak loan - %pipiri?	Powlison 1995: 456
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea	maní (Sp loan?)	maní					See Language page		plant
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus	nintyu	nı̃ntju		doubtful loan - WW	%tʃihõ or %nana?		See Language page		plant
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae	mityotu	mitjotu		doubtful loan	cf. Bora nixtja-, W. Tukanoan muɲu		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae	judarasiy	xũndarasij		unique			See Language page
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum	jonu	xonu					See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	jatisiy (sweet potato); jonu	xatisij (sweet potato), xonu		unknown	cf. Witoto 'Xanthosoma'		See Language page		plant
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae							See Language page
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.	jaso	xaso					See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	tree
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones	norityu	noritju		unique			See Language page
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua	simusiy	simusij					See Language page	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia	may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.	piturya	piturja					See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata	morchatu	mõrtʃatu		unique			See Language page
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda	juritarya	xũritarja		unique			See Language page
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		codiy	kondij		doubtful loan, direction unknown	Iquito kuni		See Language page
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox	jayanu	xãjanu					See Language page	Widespread South America
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.							See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae	tityu	titju		unique			See Language page
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.	sucay	sukãj		unknown			See Language page		plant
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae	mucatyu	mukatju		unique			See Language page
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.	ratu	ratu		unique			See Language page
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.	buchinatyu	butʃinatju					See Language page
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	jnucha	xnutʃa		unique			See Language page
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera	vaiyujami	wãijuxamı̃		unique			See Language page
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea	puchatu	putʃatu		unique			See Language page
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.	muri	murı̃					See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae	pasatu	pasatu		unique			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	sicyutu	sikjutu					See Language page
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum	sudivi	sundiwi		unique			See Language page		plant
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	jnityu	xnitju		unique			See Language page	Widespread
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.	nuva	nuwa		unique			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		ninu	ninu		unique			See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella	siñicyo	siɲikjo		unique			See Language page
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui							See Language page	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae	pachoriy	pãtʃorij		loan - WW	Arawak		See Language page	Widespread South America
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita	nudaju	nundaxu		unique			See Language page
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons	vatáy	watáj		unique			See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus	cavota	kawota		loan - WW	%kowata		See Language page
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari	javuy	xawũj		unique			See Language page
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae	ripyo	ripjõ		unique			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia

Showing 1 to 133 of 133 entries

Cultural Vocabulary (97)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology	dijyo	dixjo				See Language page
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	hačityã; ruwe; ruwero	hatʃitjã; ruwe; ruwero	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Zaparo akatʃinja	hunting, warfare	See Language page
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	jase	xase	unknown		especially for clearing fields	See Language page
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool	puryũtyã; piryũtyã (?)	purjũtjã; pirjũtjã (?)			can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material	pato	patõ	loan	Spanish plato		See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	generic basket: hĩtyu; hntyu	generic basket: hĩtju; hntju	unique			See Language page
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material	jityu	xı̃tju				See Language page
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material	mučarãnũ; mučarãnũsi	mutʃarãnũ; mutʃarãnũsi	unique			See Language page
bed	cama	cama	culture-material	maya	maja	unique			See Language page
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	masajo	mãsaxo	unique			See Language page
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool	generic gun: dudasi; dunu	generic gun: dudasi; dunu	unique		currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool						See Language page
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation	putiya (Sp.)	putija (Sp.)				See Language page
bottom grinding stone			manufacture	avichu	awitʃu			if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	kãnũ	kãnũ	doubtful loan	Panoan *kan(u/a)ti (Shell)	arco	See Language page
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material	nintya	nintjã	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Zaparoan nanu-		See Language page
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	caritye	karitje	unique			See Language page
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	michiy	mitʃij	loan - WW	%miʃi		See Language page
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	tuváryi	tuwárji	unique			See Language page
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	jntityũ	xntitjũ	unique			See Language page
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	sujay	suxaj	unique			See Language page
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool	jiivũsetá	xiiwũsetá				See Language page
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology					malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool	ramunu	ramunu			hunting and warfare	See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology	judenu	xũndenu	unknown		In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool						See Language page
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	mãryĩsãda	mãrjĩsãda				See Language page
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology	richinu	ritʃı̃nu	unique			See Language page
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture	jamu richinu	xãmu ritʃı̃nu	unique		Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool	pãpẽtyu	pãpẽtju	doubtful loan	Bora, Carib, other pepet- forms	esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology	nuvi	nuwi				See Language page
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other	puryesiy	purjesij	unknown	cf. TG pari	may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture	fermented drink: kasihyã; hũdahã	fermented drink: kasihjã; hũdahã	loan; unknown	Carib, via Tupi-Guarani	prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology	jimutu	ximutũ				See Language page
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other						See Language page
firewood	leña	lenha	other	jipu	xipu	unique			See Language page
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food			missing			See Language page
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	piryuy	pirjũj				See Language page
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool	toyahũ	tojahũ (toja='to fish')				See Language page
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool	generic trap: tãnũ	generic trap: tãnũ				See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food	paji	paxi	unique		usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food	generic meal: huru	generic meal: huru	loan; unknown	Spanish	agriculture	See Language page
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology	dudu	ndundu	unknown		multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food	nuvo	nuwo	unique		Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	bayantu	bajantu	unique			See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	cuyu	kuju	doubtful loan - WW; loan - WW	%koto/matoko; %kuja		See Language page
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool	jiminujo	xı̃minuxo	doubtful loan	Carib	esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology	bapyo	bapjo				See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool	muta	muta	loan	Tupi-Guarani mita, mirámutá 'platform of sticks'		See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool			missing		agriculture?	See Language page
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	dunu	dunu	unknown			See Language page
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	juniy	xũnij	doubtful loan	Witotoan		See Language page
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	jnõcõ	xnõkõ	unknown			See Language page
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology	rimyura	rimjura			Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics	tununu	tunũnu				See Language page
honey	miel	mel	food	quisijyã, muchityujã	kisixjã, mutʃitjuxã	unique; unknown		only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page
house			other	roriy	rorij	unique			See Language page
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	dapuy; du	dapuj; du				See Language page
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	casetuñu	kãsetuñu	loan - WW?; unknown	%kɨtʃe (or Span cuchillo?)		See Language page
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress	vapujay, japujay (female loincloth)	wapuxaj, xapuxaj (female loincloth)				See Language page
machete	machete	facão	culture-material	camyutu, jmuta	kamjutu, xmuta	unique			See Language page
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool	sanãho	sanãho	unique			See Language page
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	satya	satja	unique			See Language page
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology	muchanta	mutʃantã				See Language page
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology	dudumuta (dudu=flute; muta=a set of musical tubes)	ndundumuta				See Language page
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	catera-vĩ	katera-wĩ	loan	Span/Port 'carta'		See Language page
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool	sanãse	sanãse				See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other	cachĩpu	katʃĩpu				See Language page
plate	plato	prato	culture-material	sidye	sidje	unique			See Language page
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation	podiciya	podisiya				See Language page
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	carosi	karõsi	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Iquito kúsi		See Language page
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology	susatu	susãtu	unique			See Language page
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool	jaricha	xaritʃa	unique			See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology						See Language page
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	judiju	xũdixũ	unique			See Language page
salt	sal	sal	food	tivyiy	tiwjij	loan - WW	%tewe		See Language page
school	escuela	escola	acculturation	catera nũjyo 'place where one writes on paper'	katera nũxjo 'place where one writes on paper'				See Language page
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology	rimyura	rimjura	unique		In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress	numutujo (from 'foot'), sapatu	numutuxo (from 'foot'), sapatu				See Language page
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material	sáya	sája	loan	Port/Span saia		See Language page
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation	sũtaru	sũtaru	loan	Span/Port soldado		See Language page
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology	cusivyã (set of ritual songs); no generic term?	kusiwjã (set of ritual songs); no generic term?	unique			See Language page
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	hĩčityityã; -ro	hĩtʃitjitjã; -ro	loan; unique	Spanish hacha		See Language page
spearthrower			subsistence tool						See Language page
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food	richatu	ritʃatu	unique			See Language page
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material	jinchidiy	xintʃidij				See Language page
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	sabodu 'sugar cane'	sabodu 'sugar cane'				See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food	sipe	sipe			agriculture	See Language page
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology	mocandaju (facial tatoo)	mõkandaxu				See Language page
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material	saru	sarũ	unique			See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food			missing		word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture					use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool					agriculture	See Language page
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool	ramũ	ramũ	loan, direction unknown	Iquito ramúcuaa; cf. %namo	hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page
wax	cera	cera	other	jũtũ 'wax', quisiñapa 'beeswax'	xũtũ 'wax', kisiɲapa 'beeswax'	unique			See Language page
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	ramitya	ramitja	unique		agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology	rúnda (Chaumeil 1993)	rúnda (Chaumeil 1993)			a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page

Showing 1 to 97 of 97 entries

Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source	General Notes
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:445
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no info		Payne and Payne 1990:
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	yes	with directional verbs	Payne and Payne 1990:413
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:413
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:383
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:383-403
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	no info		Payne and Payne 1990:
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	no		Payne and Payne 1990:413
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no info		Payne and Payne 1990:
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	no		Payne and Payne 1990:348
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	no info	author talks about obliques, but does not specify how many	Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no	beneficiaries/recipients marked with the dative	Payne and Payne 1990:379	two types of dative markers: one for interlocutors and another for intralocutors
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	yes		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Payne and Payne 1990:378
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Payne and Payne 1990:378
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Payne and Payne 1990:378
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Payne and Payne 1990:378
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Payne and Payne 1990:378
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:403
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no		Payne and Payne 1990:349
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	yes	a set of person enclitics and word order can mark definiteness	Payne and Payne 1990:453
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:370
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	2	this' and 'that'	Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:404
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	2	animate/inanimate	Payne and Payne 1990:
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:446
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	no		Payne and Payne 1990:446
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Payne and Payne 1990:446
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		yes		Payne and Payne 1990:451
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes		Payne and Payne 1990:446
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:349
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:446
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes		Payne and Payne 1990:446
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Payne and Payne 1990:446
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Payne and Payne 1990:446
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Payne and Payne 1990:446
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no	a coreferential person marker on verb	Payne and Payne 1990:275
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	yes	very small/limited class	Payne and Payne 1990:416
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	no	no gender marked in Yagua	Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	yes	different varieties	Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes	a paradigm exists that specifies animate/inanimate	Payne and Payne 1990:354
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	yes	a paradigm exists that specifies animate/inanimate	Payne and Payne 1990:357
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	yes		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no info	couldn't find info on NP coordination	Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes	Set I clitics are prefixed	Payne and Payne 1990:271
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Payne and Payne 1990:348
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Payne and Payne 1990:348
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Payne and Payne 1990:
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no		Payne and Payne 1990:	only allophonic
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	no		Payne and Payne 1990:432
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Payne and Payne 1990:432
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Payne and Payne 1990:431
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:432	only /y/ allowed in coda
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Payne and Payne 1990:432
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no		Payne and Payne 1990:432	not likely
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no		Payne and Payne 1990:432
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	yes		Payne and Payne 1990
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	yes	Set I clitics for S, Set II for O	Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no	unlikely	Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	yes	second position clitic	Payne and Payne 1990:308
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	yes		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:317
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	yes		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:346
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no	only possible when coreferential with a previous NP in the discourse	Payne and Payne 1990:346
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		no		Payne and Payne 1990:342
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	no	almost always Set I clitics	Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Payne and Payne 1990:361
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no info	no examples of number on verbs, so unlikely	Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	yes	Set I clitics mark possession	Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	no	no gender distinction in the language	Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	yes	dative marker for recipient/beneficiary	Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	no	reflexive/reciprocal coreferential marker	Payne and Payne 1990:271
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	no	reflexive/reciprocal coreferential marker	Payne and Payne 1990:271
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:275
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:284
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:386
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	yes	three different past tense markers	Payne and Payne 1990:386
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no	no dedicated future; irrealis instead	Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Payne and Payne 1990:383
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		yes		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	yes	modal auxiliary /a/	Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	no		Payne and Payne 1990:314
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:403
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:391
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no	not likely	Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	yes	irrealis	Payne and Payne 1990:403
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no info		Payne and Payne 1990
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		yes		Payne and Payne 1990:254
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:254
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		yes		Payne and Payne 1990:254
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	yes	basic order is VSO	Payne and Payne 1990:254
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no		Payne and Payne 1990:254
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Payne and Payne 1990
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Payne and Payne 1990
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes		Payne and Payne 1990
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	no		Payne and Payne 1990:349
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:349
Word Order	Demonstrative-Noun		yes		Payne and Payne 1990:349
Word Order	Noun-Demonstrative		no		Payne and Payne 1990:349
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes		Payne and Payne 1990:349
Word Order	Noun-Num		no		Payne and Payne 1990:349
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:342
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Payne and Payne 1990
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Payne and Payne 1990:310

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