Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors

Kokama

Family
Tupian
Region
South America
ISO 639-3
cod
Location
-4.50°, -74.00°
Notes
Features
Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Data Sources
Espinosa, Lucas. 1989. Breve diccionario analítico castellano-tupí del Perú. Sección Cocama.Ediciones C.E.T.A., Iquitos. Vallejos, Rosa. (2007). Fonología de la variedad cocamilla del rí­o Huallaga. Volume: Fonologí­as, Programa de Formación de Maestros Bilingües de la Amazoní­a Peruana, Perú. Vallejos Yopán, Rosa. 2010. A grammar of Kokama-Kokamilla. University of Oregon. (Doctoral disseration). Faust, Norma. 2008 (3ra. ed.). Gramática cocama. Serie Lingüística Peruana no. 6. ILV, Lima.


Basic Vocabulary (191)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes General Notes Source
above encima, arriba acima location arɨwa arɨwa loan Spanish See Language page
and y e grammar See Language page
ash ceniza(s) cinzas environment missing See Language page
at en, a em, a location rupe (suff.) rupe See Language page
back espalda costas body yatukupe jatukupe inheritance See Language page
bad mal mal quality aytse ajtse unknown See Language page
belly barriga barriga body tsehueca tseweka loan Zaparo tawaka See Language page
below abajo, debajo abaixo location wɨrɨ wɨrɨ inheritance See Language page
big grande grande quality tua tua inheritance See Language page
black negro preto colour tsuni (to be black) tsuni inheritance See Language page
blood sangre sangue body tsuwɨ tsuwɨ inheritance See Language page
boil/pimple espinilla, granos espinha, borbulha body missing See Language page
bone hueso osso body kanuara kanuaɾa inheritance See Language page
breast pecho, seno peito body putis putis inheritance See Language page
child niño, niña criança human ɨcratsen ɨkɾatsen unique See Language page
cloud nube nuvem environment uni-ta-watsu uni-ta-watsu unique See Language page
cold frío frio quality tsɨre (to be cold) tsɨɾe doubtful loan Quechua tʃiri See Language page
correct/true verdad, de veras verdade quality atsimin atsimin unknown See Language page
day día dia time kuarachi kuaɾatʃi unique See Language page
dirty sucio sujo quality charu tʃaru unique See Language page
dingo/wolf fauna See Language page
dry seco seco quality ikana ikana inheritance See Language page
dull/blunt sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo maçante, desamolado, não afiado quality See Language page
dust polvo poeira environment turuka turuka See Language page
ear oreja orelha body nami nami inheritance See Language page
earth/soil tierra terra environment missing See Language page
egg huevo ovo fauna tsúpia tsúpia inheritance See Language page
eye ojo olho body chitsacuara (eyes) tʃitsakuaɾa inheritance See Language page
far lejos longe quality amutse (to be far) amutse inheritance cf. Kamayura See Language page
fat/grease grasa gordura body missing See Language page
father padre, papá pai kinship papa papa doubtful loan Spanish See Language page
feather pluma pena fauna wɨra-tsa ('bird-leaf') wɨra-tsa ('bird-leaf') unique See Language page
fire fuego fogo environment tata tata inheritance See Language page
flower flor flor environment sisa sisa loan Quechua See Language page
fog niebla, neblina nevoeira, bruma, neblina environment tsahue (foggy; also used figuratively for "not clear") tsawe See Language page
fruit fruta fruta flora ɨwɨria ɨwɨria inheritance See Language page
good bueno bom quality era (to be good) eɾa unique See Language page
hair (of head) cabello cabelo body tsa, yaquɨtsa tsa, jakɨtsa inheritance See Language page
hand mano mão body pua pua inheritance See Language page
3sg el/ella ele/ela grammar ai ai inheritance See Language page
head cabeza cabeça body yaquɨ, yaquɨcuara jakɨ, jakɨkuaɾa inheritance See Language page
heavy pesado pesado quality missing See Language page
how? como como grammar mañatipa maɲatipa inheritance See Language page
1sg yo eu grammar etse etse inheritance For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms See Language page
if si se grammar rashi raʃi See Language page
in/inside dentro, adentro dentro location cuara (suff.) kuara inheritance See Language page
intestines intestinos intestinos body tiputi chiru tiputi tʃiru inheritance See Language page
lake lago lago environment ɨpatsu ɨpatsu inheritance See Language page
leaf hoja folha environment tsa tsa inheritance See Language page
left/left hand izquierdo esquerdo location/body missing See Language page
leg/foot pierna perna body tsutɨma tsutɨma inheritance See Language page
lightning rayo, relámpago relampago environment tsentsene tsentsene unique See Language page
liver hígado figado body pɨna pɨna inheritance See Language page
long largo comprido, longo quality ipuku ipuku inheritance See Language page
louse piollo, piojo piolho fauna kɨwa kɨwa inheritance order Phtiraptera See Language page
man/male hombre homem human ahua, ñapitsara awa, ɲapitsaɾa inheritance; unique See Language page
meat/flesh carne carne fauna tsu tsu inheritance See Language page
moon luna lua environment yatsɨ jatsɨ inheritance See Language page
mother madre, mamá mãe kinship mama mama loan Span? See Language page
mouth boca boca body yuru juɾu inheritance See Language page
name nombre nome human chira tʃiɾa inheritance See Language page
near/close cerca de perto quality ari (suff.) ari unique See Language page
nape base del cuello, nuca nuca body See Language page
neck cuello pescoço body yachuka jaʧuka unknown See Language page
new nuevo novo quality missing See Language page
night noche noite time ɨpɨtsa ɨpɨtsa inheritance See Language page
no/not no não grammar tɨma tɨma unknown See Language page
nose nariz nariz body ti ti inheritance See Language page
old viejo velho quality wiju wixu unique See Language page
one uno um number huepe wepe inheritance See Language page
other otro outro grammar amua amua inheritance See Language page
pain/painful/sick dolor, doloroso, enfermo dor, doloroso, doente body aicua (to become sick); aicuan (adj.) aikua; aikuan unique See Language page
person/human being persona pessoa human awa awa inheritance See Language page
rain lluvia chuva environment amana amana inheritance See Language page
red rojo vermelho colour pɨtani (to be red) pɨtani inheritance See Language page
right/right hand derecha direita location/body missing See Language page
road/path camino caminho manufacture pe, pecuara pe, pekuaɾa inheritance See Language page
root raíz raiz flora missing See Language page
rotten podrido podre quality pua pua inheritance See Language page
sand arena areia environment itini itini inheritance See Language page
sharp afilado, filudo, filoso afiado quality tsapaka ('sharpen') tsapaka ('sharpen') unique See Language page
short corto curto quality missing See Language page
shoulder hombro ombro body yɨwa-pɨka 'arm-seat' yɨwa-pɨka 'arm-seat' unique See Language page
shy/ashamed tímido, vergonzoso timido, com vergonha mental uti uti unique See Language page
skin piel pele body piruara (also bark) piruara inheritance See Language page
sky cielo céu environment kuarachi kuaratʃi loan, direction unknown Yagua See Language page
small pequeño pequeno quality chura tʃura doubtful loan, direction unknown See Language page
smoke humo fumaça environment tatatini tatatini inheritance See Language page
star estrella estrela environment missing See Language page
stick/wood palo pau, vara flora ɨwɨra ɨwɨra inheritance See Language page
stone piedra pedra environment itaki itaki inheritance See Language page
tail cola, rabo rabo body tsui tsui unique See Language page
that ese/esa esse grammar yukun (distal), yama (indefinite) jukun (distal), jama (indefinite) unknown See Language page
3pl ellos/ellas eles/elas grammar inu inu unknown See Language page
thick grueso, gordo, espeso grosso quality missing See Language page
thin delgado fino quality missing See Language page
this este/esta este grammar ajan axan inheritance See Language page
2sg xx xx grammar ene ene inheritance See Language page
throat garganta garganta body missing See Language page
three tres tres number mutsapɨrɨca mutsapɨɾɨka inheritance See Language page
thunder truenos trovão environment tupa tupa inheritance See Language page
bite morder morder body caruta; aya (~ from mosquito/snake) karuta; aja unique See Language page
blow soplar soprar body tsapu tsapu unique See Language page
breathe respirar respirar body missing See Language page
burn quemar queimar environment uquita; uqui (refl.) ukita; uki unique See Language page
chew masticar, mascar mastigar body missing See Language page
climb subir subir motion warika warika unique See Language page
come venir vir motion uri uri inheritance See Language page
cook cocinar cozinhar impact ɨita ɨita unique See Language page
count contar contar mental missing See Language page
cry llorar chorar mental yachu jatʃu inheritance See Language page
cut/hack cortar cortar impact tsaquɨta tsakɨta doubtful loan Arawak See Language page
die/be dead morir morrer state umanu umanu inheritance See Language page
dig cavar cavar impact missing See Language page
dream soñar sonhar mental ukɨrɨaytsi ukɨrɨajtsi inheritance See Language page
drink beber, tomar beber body curata kuɾata doubtful loan see various ku forms in region See Language page
eat comer comer body eyu eju inheritance See Language page
fall caer cair motion uhuari uwari inheritance See Language page
fear miedo medo mental aquɨcha (tener miedo) akɨtʃa inheritance See Language page
flow fluir fluir motion atsɨrɨca atsiɨrɨka inheritance See Language page
fly volar voar motion uhue uwe inheritance See Language page
grow crecer crescer state aipa aipa unique See Language page
hear oír ouvir mental tsenu tsenu inheritance See Language page
hide esconder esconder motion yamimi (refl.) jamimi inheritance See Language page
hit golpear, pegar bater impact ayuca ajuka unique See Language page
hold correr, asegurar, sostener segurar other emete emete unique See Language page
kill matar matar impact umanuta umanuta doubtful loan Zaparoan See Language page
know/be knowledgeable saber, conecer saber, conhecer mental icua ikua inheritance See Language page
laugh reír rir mental apuca apuka inheritance See Language page
lie down acostarse, echarse deitar motion yaparari japarari inheritance See Language page
live/be alive vivir viver, morar body caquɨrɨ kakɨrɨ inheritance See Language page
open/uncover abrir abrir other yatse (to ~) yatse unique See Language page
pound/beat machacar, golpear bater impact ayuka ajuka See Language page
say decir dizer mental kumitsa kumitsa unique See Language page
scratch rascar rasgar impact missing See Language page
see ver ver mental umi umi unique See Language page
shoot tirar, disparar, balear atirar impact aya aja unknown See Language page
sit sentar(se) sentar state yapɨca japɨka inheritance See Language page
sleep dormir dormir body uquɨrɨ ukɨɾɨ inheritance See Language page
sniff/smell olfatear, oler cheirar body tsetuni tsetuni inheritance primarily transitive See Language page
spit escupir cuspir body missing See Language page
split partir, dividir rachar, dividir, partir impact missing See Language page
squeeze estrujar, exprimir espremer impact missing See Language page
stab/pierce apuñalar, acuchillar apunhalar impact missing See Language page
stand estar de pié ficar em pé state ipama (stand up) ipama inheritance See Language page
steal robar roubar other muna muna inheritance See Language page
suck chupar chupar body tsuhuana tsuwana unique See Language page
swell hincharse inchar body irura irura inheritance See Language page
swim nadar nadar motion ɨata ɨata inheritance See Language page
think pensar pensar mental ikuaka ikuaka inheritance See Language page
throw tirar, lanzar atirar, jogar impact itika itika inheritance See Language page
tie up/fasten atar, amarrar amarrar impact tɨquɨta tɨkɨta unique See Language page
turn girar, volter, torcer virar other missing may be transitive or intransitive See Language page
vomit vomitar vomitar body uhuene uwene inheritance See Language page
walk caminar, andar andar motion ucua, uhuata ukua, uwata unknown; inheritance See Language page
work trabajar trabalhar other camata kamata doubtful loan Arawak See Language page
yawn bostezar bocejar body missing See Language page
tongue lengua lingua body missing See Language page
tooth diente dente body tsai tsai inheritance See Language page
two dos dois number mucuica mukuika inheritance See Language page
water agua agua environment uni uni loan Arawak See Language page
1pl.incl nosotros (inclusivo) nós (inclusivo) grammar ini ini inheritance no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted See Language page
1pl.excl nosotros (exclusivo) nós (exclusivo) grammar penu penu unknown See Language page
wet mojado molhado quality tɨa-ta tɨa-ta unknown See Language page
what? que, qué que grammar mari mari inheritance See Language page
when? cuando quando grammar mañapucatipa maɲapucatipa inheritance See Language page
where? donde onde grammar macatipa macatipa inheritance See Language page
white blanco branco colour tini (to be white) tini inheritance See Language page
who? quien, quién quem grammar ahuataca (interrogative) awataka inheritance See Language page
wife esposa esposa kinship miricua miɾikua inheritance See Language page
wind viento vento environment ɨwɨtu ɨwɨtu inheritance See Language page
wing ala asa body missing See Language page
woman/female mujer mulher human huaina waina inheritance? See Language page
yellow amarillo amarelo colour iu (to be yellow) iu inheritance See Language page
2pl ustedes vocês grammar epe epe inheritance See Language page
foot pie pé body pɨta pɨta inheritance See Language page
again de nuevo, otra vez de novo grammar catu katu unknown See Language page
all todo todos other upi; upimari (everything) upi; upimari unique See Language page
ankle tobillo tornozelo body pɨta-muchuri 'foot-node' pɨta-mutʃuri 'foot-node' unique See Language page
armpit axila, sobaco axila body jɨwa-kuara 'arm-inessive' jɨwa-kuara 'arm-inessive' inheritance See Language page
faeces heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol fezes body missing See Language page
lung pulmón pulmão body missing See Language page
sweat sudar suor, suar body tsɨi tsɨi inheritance See Language page
itch hormiguear, sentir comezón coçar body See Language page
bark corteza casca environment piruara (also skin) piɾuaɾa (algo skin) inheritance See Language page
fingernail uña unha body missing See Language page
heart corazón coração body ia ia inheritance See Language page
sun sol sol time cuarachi kuaɾatʃi inheritance See Language page
mountain/hill montaña, colina, loma, cerro morro, serra environment missing See Language page
green verde verde quality ɨquɨrata (to be green) ɨkɨɾata inheritance See Language page
hot caliente quente quality tsacu (to be hot) tsaku inheritance See Language page


Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Linnean Name Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Etymology Notes Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Range of Term Word Structure Word Structure Notes Classifier Classifier Notes Hypernym Source Association with Social Categories Ritual/Mythologically Significant Ritual Notes Food Source Food Notes Medicinal Medicinal Notes How Collected Who Collects How Prepared Psychotropic Psychotropic Notes Traded Trade Notes Distribution Habitat Dangerous Ethnobiology Notes Species Notes General Notes
bat murciélago morcego flora-fauna Chiroptera spp. missing See Language page
bird pajaro, ave passaro flora-fauna wɨra wɨra inheritance See Language page
curassow mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini) mutum flora-fauna Crax sp., Nothocrax sp. missing See Language page Amazonia
toucan tucán, pinsha (Peru) tucano flora-fauna Ramphastos sp. piakui piakui doubtful loan, direction unknown Iquito nípaaki See Language page Widespread Amazonia
gray-winged trumpeter Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris jacamim flora-fauna Psophia crepitans missing See Language page Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
guan pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru) jacu flora-fauna Penelope sp. missing See Language page Different types have different localized ranges
tinamou tinamu, perdiz, gallineta inambu, inhambu flora-fauna family Tinamidae missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
hummingbird colibrí, picaflor (Peru) beija-flor flora-fauna family Trochilidae wainumi wainumi inheritance See Language page Widespread
kingfisher martín pescador, catalan (Peru) martim-pescador flora-fauna family Alcedinidae missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
owl (large) búho, lechuza corujão flora-fauna order Strigiformes urukutú uɾukutú doubtful loan - WW? onomatopoeic? %murukutu / kurukutu See Language page Widespread
macaw ara, guacamaya Arara flora-fauna family Psittacidae; Ara sp. arara aɾaɾa loan into protolg? - WW %arara See Language page Widespread Amazonia
parrot loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib) papagaio flora-fauna Amazona amazonica missing See Language page Widespread
dove paloma pomba flora-fauna family Columbidae wɨra=kɨra ('bird-DIM') wɨra=kɨra ('bird-DIM') unique See Language page
hawk halcón, gavilán gavião flora-fauna family Accipitridae missing See Language page
vulture buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru) urubu flora-fauna family Cathartidae urupu uɾupu inheritance See Language page Widespread South America
duck pato pato, marreco flora-fauna Anatidae family missing See Language page
great egret Garza Blanca, Guyratî Garça-Branca-Grande flora-fauna Ardea alba wakará wakaɾá doubtful loan - WW %wakara See Language page Widespread South America
woodpecker pájaro carpintero, carpintero pica-pau flora-fauna family Picidae missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
dog (camp, domestic) perro cachorro flora-fauna Canis famililaris yahuara (the same word used for "tiger" jawaɾa semantic shift jaguar See Language page Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog) sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta cachorro-do-mato flora-fauna Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis See Language page Widespread Amazonia
anteater oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus tamanduá flora-fauna Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater) missing See Language page Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo) tatu flora-fauna family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri tatú tatú inheritance See Language page Widespread in Amazonia
sloth pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru) macaco preguica flora-fauna Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp. aɨ aɨ inheritance See Language page Widespread Amazonia
alligator, black caiman babilla; cachirre jacaré flora-fauna Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp. jakari jakari inheritance See Language page Throughout Amazonia Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
electric eel anguila eléctrica poraquê flora-fauna Electrophorus electricus purake puɾake inheritance See Language page
fish (generic) pez peixe flora-fauna ipira ipiɾa inheritance See Language page
pacu fish palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru) pacu flora-fauna Mylossoma sp. tapaka tapaka See Language page
pirana piraña, caribe piranha flora-fauna subfamily Serrasalmidae missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
tigerfish taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru) traíra flora-fauna Hoplias sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
mandi catfish maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish) mandi flora-fauna Auchenipterus sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
speckled catfish surubí, pintadillo surubim, sorubim flora-fauna Pseudoplatystoma sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
toad sapo sapo flora-fauna order Anura cururu kuɾuɾu See Language page
iguana iguana, garipiares (Colombia) camaleão flora-fauna Iguana sp. yakuraru jakuɾaɾu semantic shift compound w/caiman? See Language page iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
small lizard lagartija calango flora-fauna order Squamata yakari jakari semantic shift from 'caiman' See Language page
stingray (generic) rayas látigo, raya arraia flora-fauna Potamotrygon sp. yawawira jawawiɾa inheritance See Language page
crab cangrejo caranguejo flora-fauna infraorder Brachyura missing See Language page
anaconda anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande sucuri flora-fauna genus Eunectes missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
boa boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura jiboia flora-fauna family Boidae, subf. Boinae muiwatsu muiwatsu inheritance snake-big' See Language page
snake (generic) culebra, serpiente cobra flora-fauna mui mui inheritance See Language page
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara jararaca flora-fauna Bothrops jararaca/atrox tsuitini 'Bothrops' tsuitini 'Bothrops' See Language page Widespread South America
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant) tortuga, morrocoy, motelo jabutí, tartaruga flora-fauna Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria puka puka loan, direction unknown Cofan poka See Language page Widespread
Amazon dolphin bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco) boto cor-de-rosa flora-fauna Inia geoffrensis ipirahuira (lit "fish-penis"?) piɾawiɾa unique See Language page Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls
mushroom champiñón, hongo cogumelo flora-fauna (any edible generic) missing See Language page prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
black palm bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá bacaba flora-fauna Oenocarpus bacaba missing See Language page Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
açai palm huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia) açaí flora-fauna Euterpe sp. missing See Language page floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
miriti palm moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti buriti flora-fauna Mauritia flexuosa mɨrɨti mɨɾɨti inheritance See Language page Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps trunks contain sago-like starch
palm for roof thatch pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná caraná flora-fauna Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana pinawa pinawa See Language page Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests palm
paxiuba palm pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba paxiuba flora-fauna Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea patiwa patiwa inheritance See Language page Widespread Amazonia palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol) pupunha flora-fauna Bactris gasipaes pɨpɨchɨ pɨpɨtʃɨ pijuayo (fruto de esp. palmera) Arawak loan - %pipiri into Proto-Tupinamba-Omagua-Kokama? Vallejos 2007: 23 Probably comes from Wapishana branch (r > ȥ); see Bahuana
seje palm ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá patoá, patuá flora-fauna Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua manaka manaka See Language page mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
coca coca coca flora-fauna Erythroxylum coca missing See Language page secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes plant
cotton algodón algodão flora-fauna Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers) amanju amanju inheritance See Language page secondary scrub vegetation plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
kapok ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.) sumaumeira flora-fauna Ceiba pentandra wapi ɨ wa wapi ɨ wa See Language page northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas tree
hot pepper ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru) pimenta flora-fauna Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens ɨkɨ ɨkɨ inheritance See Language page secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden plant
peanut maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete amendoim flora-fauna Arachis hypogaea muni muni See Language page plant
pineapple piña abacaxi flora-fauna Ananas comosus nana nana inheritance - WW See Language page plant
arrow cane, wildcane caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio flora-fauna Gynerium sagittatum See Language page tropical regions, especially river banks plant
banana, plantain banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano banana flora-fauna Musa sp. panara panaɾa loan Spanish? See Language page Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
beans frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas) feijão flora-fauna Phaseolus spp. purutu (Spanish loan) puɾutu loan Quechua (via Spanish?) See Language page plant
grass hierba, pasto capim, grama flora-fauna (generic) missing See Language page
maize, corn mazorca, maiz milho flora-fauna Zea mays ahuati awati inheritance See Language page widespread, esp. in river floodplains plant
tobacco tabaco tabaco flora-fauna Nicotiana tabacum petɨma petɨma inheritance See Language page plant
tree árbol arvore flora-fauna ɨhuɨra ɨwɨɾa inheritance See Language page
achiote, anatto achiote urucum flora-fauna Bixa orellana ruku ruku inheritance See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens shrub
inga guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru) inga flora-fauna Inga spp. ɨna ɨna inheritance See Language page Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
avocado palta, aguacate abacate flora-fauna Persea americana missing See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens tree
bitterwood tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru) envira flora-fauna Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala See Language page secondary forests, native to Brazil tree
brazil nut castaña castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis) flora-fauna Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia'] muni-watsu muni-watsu See Language page 1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua. tree
cashew anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela) caju flora-fauna Anacardium occidentale / giganteum missing See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
genipap jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico genipapo, jenipapo flora-fauna Genipapa americana missing See Language page widespread lowland SA shrub
japurá oreja de murcielago japurá flora-fauna Erisma japura See Language page large tree
rubber tree (sorva) caucho, siringa, shiringa seringa, borracha flora-fauna Hevea sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia tree
ucuqui yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru) ucuqui flora-fauna Pouteria ucuqui See Language page native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
Amazon tree-grape uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.) cucura flora-fauna Pourouma cecropiifolia missing See Language page grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times a tree; not a true grape
manioc (bitter or generic) yuca brava mandioca flora-fauna Manihot esculenta yahuiri (not specified as bitter or sweet) yawiɾi unique See Language page not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition. Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet) yuca, caribe macaxeira flora-fauna Manihot esculenta missing See Language page Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
potato papa batata flora-fauna Solanum tuberosum See Language page secondary scrub vegetation compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara batata-doce flora-fauna Ipomoea batatas yɨtika jɨtika inheritance See Language page plant
cará tuber, purple or white camote, sachapapa cará roxo, branco flora-fauna Dioscorea sp. kara kaɾa See Language page secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings plant
tannia, yautia huitina (Peru), ñame taioba branca flora-fauna Xanthosoma spp. missing See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree) calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara cabaça flora-fauna Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine) missing See Language page indigenous gardens plant; tree
squash calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru) abóbora flora-fauna Cucurbita sp. missing See Language page plant
cipó vine tamishi, bejuco, yare cipó flora-fauna Heteropsis spp. itimu itimu See Language page secondary forest, floodplain vine
fish poison, barbasco barbasco, matapez (Colombia) timbó flora-fauna Lonchocarpus spp. timu timu inheritance See Language page secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation shrub/tree
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca ayahuasca, yage ayahuasca, caapi flora-fauna Banisteriopsis caapi missing See Language page semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW vine
hallucinogenic snuff vilca, cebil, yopo paricá, yopo flora-fauna Anadenanthera sp. or virola See Language page
insect (generic) insecto insecto flora-fauna generic See Language page
ant (generic) hormiga formiga flora-fauna Formicidae tsatsɨwa tsatsɨwa See Language page
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro tocandira flora-fauna Paraponera clavata tucanɨra tukanɨɾa inheritance See Language page
leaf-cutter ant Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse saúva flora-fauna Atta sp. kuki kuki doubtful loan, direction unknown Napo Quechua ukui See Language page
honeybee abeja abelha flora-fauna Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis mapa mapa loan Arawak See Language page
cockroach cucaracha barata-do-mato flora-fauna order Blattaria arawi arawi inheritance? - WW %arawe, Mello 2000 *taraBe; cf. Carib (*)masarawa See Language page
firefly, lightning bug lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin) vagalume flora-fauna fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae missing See Language page
butterfly, moth mariposa borboleta flora-fauna order Lepidoptera panama (Mello2000) panama (Mello2000) inheritance See Language page
moth mariposa nocturna, polilla mariposa flora-fauna order Lepidoptera tsatsuka tsatsuka See Language page
angleworm lombriz minhoca flora-fauna order Opisthopora tsɨwɨj tsɨwɨj inheritance See Language page
centipede ciempiés centopéia flora-fauna class Chilopoda See Language page
scorpion escorpión; alacran escorpião flora-fauna order Scorpiones yatsura jatsuɾa unique See Language page
cicada cigarra, chicharra cigarra flora-fauna super fam. Cicadoidea yakirana jakiɾana inheritance See Language page
flea pulga pulga flora-fauna order Siphonaptera missing See Language page
blowfly/housefly mosca mosca flora-fauna Diptera missing See Language page
cricket saltón, grillo grilo flora-fauna family Gryllidae chiri tʃiɾi loan - WW %tʃiriku: Quechua, Aymara, Zaparoan, Kokama, Matses? See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil) suri, mojojoy larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá flora-fauna Rhynchophorus sp. missing See Language page
praying mantis, stick insects mantis religiosa louva-a-deus flora-fauna order Mantodea, family Mantidae See Language page
mosquito mosquito, zancudo mosquito, carapana flora-fauna Anopheles sp. teβekɨwa teβekɨwa unique See Language page
termites, white-ants comején (Peru), termitas cupim flora-fauna order Isoptera kupia kupia inheritance See Language page
tick garrapata carrapato flora-fauna superfam Ixodoidea menepa menepa unique See Language page
wasp avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa caba flora-fauna order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita kawa kawa inheritance See Language page
snail caracol, churo (Peru) caracol flora-fauna class Gastropoda missing See Language page
spider araña aranha flora-fauna Arachnidae, Araneae missing See Language page
jaguar yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru) onca flora-fauna Panthera onca yahuara jawaɾa inheritance cf. Arawak, Tukanoan See Language page
manatee vaca marina, manatí peixe-boi flora-fauna Trichechus sp. yuwara juwaɾa See Language page
brown woolly monkey Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt macaco barrigudo flora-fauna Lagothrix lagothricha arawata arawata loan - WW Carib (howler monkey) See Language page
howler monkey (red-handed) mono aullador, mono coto (Peru) guariba flora-fauna Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.] akiki akiki inheritance See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero macaco prego flora-fauna Cebus apella cai kai inheritance See Language page
white-fronted capuchin Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru) Caiarara flora-fauna Cebus albifrons missing See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia) macaco aranha, coatá, quatá flora-fauna Ateles belzebuth/paniscus missing See Language page
opossum zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo mucura flora-fauna family Didelphidae missing See Language page
giant otter Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria ariranha flora-fauna Pteronura brasiliensis missing See Language page
neotropical otter (small) Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia) lontra flora-fauna Lontra longicaudis yawara pana miri jawaɾa pana miɾi See Language page
collared peccary sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar caititu, caetitu flora-fauna Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu missing See Language page
white-lipped peccary Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana queixada flora-fauna Tayassu pecari tayatsu tajatsu inheritance See Language page
porcupine puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru) cuandu, porco-espinho flora-fauna family Erethizontidae missing See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache quati flora-fauna genus Nasua atʃuniʔ (Mello2000) atʃuniʔ (Mello2000) loan Quechua/Aymara See Language page
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti) Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado cutia flora-fauna Dasyprocta spp. missing See Language page
capybara Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco capivara flora-fauna Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris kapiwara (Mello2000) kapiwara (Mello2000) inheritance See Language page
green acouchi Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo cutiara flora-fauna Myoprocta pratti missing See Language page
paca (lowland) Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana) paca flora-fauna Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.) paka paka inheritance See Language page
mouse, rat ratón camundongo, rata flora-fauna Mus musculus missing See Language page
squirrel ardilla, danta (Ven) serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo flora-fauna family Sciuridae kuti kuti inheritance See Language page
tapir sachavaca, danta anta flora-fauna Tapirus terrestris tapira tapira inheritance See Language page
deer venado veado, cariacu flora-fauna family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus ɨtsɨwatsu ɨtsɨwatsu inheritance See Language page
horse caballo cavalho flora-fauna Equus caballus kawariu kawariu See Language page


Cultural Vocabulary (97)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes Word Structure Word Structure Notes General Notes Source
basket (general) canasta, canasto, cesta cesto culture-material urkuru uɾkuɾu doubtful loan into protolg, direction unknown - WW %panaku See Language page
basket, small canasta, canasto, cesta cesto pequeno, tampado culture-material See Language page
bead abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar miçanga culture-material missing See Language page
bed cama cama culture-material ukɨrɨ tupa (place to sleep) ukɨɾɨ tupa unique See Language page
hammock hamaca, chinchorro rede culture-material tukini tukini unique See Language page
bench, seat banco, silla, asiento banco culture-material yapɨcatupa japɨkatupa inheritance from 'sit' See Language page
canoe canoa canoa transport ɨara ɨaɾa inheritance See Language page
drum (large signal) tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia) tambor culture missing Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances See Language page
drum tambor tambor culture-mythology tutu tutu loan - WW %toto (onomatopoeic?) See Language page
shaman, healer chamán, brujo xaman, pajé, feiticeiro culture-mythology payum, tsumi, icuan (from the verb "to know") pajum, tsumi, ikuan inheritance; unknown In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv See Language page
healer curandero benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano) culture-mythology Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well. See Language page
broom escoba vassoura culture-material ɨara, ɨrara ɨara, ɨrara unique See Language page
clothing ropa roupa culture-mythology chiru tʃiɾu inheritance - WW %sarur, prob loan into Inga Quechua See Language page
fence, palisade cerco cerca other yuta juta unknown may be related to defense/warfare? See Language page
firewood leña lenha other ipia ipia inheritance See Language page
Curupira (spirit type) Curupira, Madremonte Curupira culture-mythology malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio espirito culture-mythology mai mai unknown See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure dios(es), deidad divinidade, figura mítica culture-mythology missing In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc. See Language page
flute flauta, quena (Peru) flauta culture-mythology tiama tiama inheritance multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc. See Language page
panpipe carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora caniço, flauta de pã culture-mythology See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making canoa para chicha cocho de caxiri narcotics See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya) kapiwaya capiwaya culture-mythology See Language page
knife cuchillo faca culture-material quɨchi kɨtʃi inheritance See Language page
machete machete facão culture-material quɨchi kɨtʃi semantic shift knife' See Language page
axe/stone axe hacha (de piedra) machado (de pedra) subsistence tool yɨ jɨ inheritance especially for clearing fields See Language page
arrow flecha flecha subsistence tool uwa uwa inheritance hunting, warfare See Language page
spear lanza lança subsistence tool ɨhuɨratsu, rejun ɨwɨɾatsu, rexun semantic shift from 'bow' See Language page
bow arco arco subsistence tool kanuti kanuti loan Panoan arco See Language page
paddle/oar remo remo transport yapuquita japukita inheritance See Language page
plate plato prato culture-material missing See Language page
pot olla, pote panela, vasilha subsistence tool yukuchi jukutʃi doubtful loan, direction unknown Iquito kúsi See Language page
basin/bowl tazón, plato hondo, taza tijela culture-material muritsu muɾitsu unique See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru) forno para beiju subsistence tool missing agriculture? See Language page
rattle matraca, maraca marico, chocalho culture-mythology missing See Language page
resin resina, brea, copal resina, brea, breu subsistence tool kai kai unknown See Language page
wax cera cera other mapa-uka mapa-uka unique from loan 'bee' See Language page
honey miel mel food missing only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia? See Language page
stone for lighting fires piedra para hacer fuego pedra para acender fogo culture-material See Language page
rope/string mecate, cuerda, soga corda culture puatsa puatsa doubtful loan, direction unknown Ocaina mõãʔša-ʔóɸɛ See Language page
tattoo tatuaje, tatu tatuagem culture-mythology See Language page
thatch/roof crisneja palha, caraná culture-material pinawa pinawa inheritance See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women) yurupari jurupari culture-mythology a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women. See Language page
fetish, charm fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga feitiço, puçanga culture-mythology See Language page
feather headdress plumaje, corona de plumas enfeite/capacete de penas culture-mythology yakɨ warimata jakɨ waɾimata See Language page
paint body, body paint pintura corporal pintura corporal culture-mythology See Language page
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven tierra do los muertos terra dos mortos culture-mythology See Language page
school escuela escola acculturation escuela escuela See Language page
bottle botella garrafa acculturation See Language page
paper papel papel acculturation missing See Language page
dream sueño, soñar sonho, sonhar culture-mythology ukɨrɨaytsi ukɨrɨajtsi See Language page
chicken gallina galinha acculturation atawari atawari loan - WW %atawalpa See Language page
grave tumba, sepultura, sepulcro sepultura, sepulcro, cova culture-mythology See Language page
pipe for tobacco pipa cachimbo other See Language page
sugarcane/sugar azúcar, caña de azúcar açucar (de cana) acculturation uwakɨra uwakɨra See Language page
skirt falda, saya, fustan, pollera saia culture-material saya saja loan Port/Span saia See Language page
shoes zapatos sapatos dress pɨta + chiru 'foot cloth' pɨta + tʃiru 'foot cloth' See Language page
policeman polícia policía acculturation See Language page
soldier soldado soldado acculturation tsuntaru tsuntaru loan Span/Port soldado See Language page
cat gato gato acculturation missing See Language page
gun arma, escopeta espingarda, fusil acculturation puna puna semantic shift from 'blowgun' See Language page
hat sombero chapéu dress missing See Language page
chief/leader jefe, cacique chefe culture-mythology apu apu loan - WW %apu See Language page
club garrote, cachiporra clava, porrete subsistence tool missing See Language page
loincloth taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla tanga, tapa-sexo dress See Language page
fireplace hogar lareira other See Language page
fishing line cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze linha de pesca subsistence tool See Language page
salt sal sal food tewe, tsewe tewe, tsewe loan - WW %tewe See Language page
song (generic) canción, canto canção culture-mythology ikara (ritual song) ikara (ritual song) unknown See Language page
blowgun cerbatana, pucuna (Peru) zarabatana subsistence tool puna puna unknown currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region See Language page
dart (blowgun) dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru) dardo, seta subsistence tool wachi watʃi hunting and warfare See Language page
fan abanico abanador, abano subsistence tool wauta wauta loan cf. Yavitero mahu'ita, Sikuani huata, Kokama wauta esp. for fanning a cooking fire See Language page
fish (with line) anzuelear, pescar con linea pescar (com linha) food tsɨqui tsɨki See Language page
fish (with fish-poison) pescar con barbasco, barbasquear pescar com timbó; tinguijar food timupura timupura unique from 'timbo' See Language page
hunt cazar caçar food ipurkari ipurkari See Language page
game animal caza, animal de caza caça, animal de caça food ipurak-ari-n (Mello2000) ipurak-ari-n (Mello2000) unique Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl) cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo cuia subsistence tool missing See Language page
grater rallador, rallo ralador, ralo subsistence tool missing esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf) barbacoa jirau subsistence tool pari paɾi semantic shift stick grid See Language page
mortar mortero pilão subsistence tool takaru tupa takaɾu tupa loan widespread; cf. Spanish taco See Language page
pestle pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor mão de pilão subsistence tool See Language page
fermented drink masato, chicha caxiri, chicha culture caitsuma kaitsuma inheritance? also in Nheengatu prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made See Language page
flour/meal from manioc fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina farinha food ui ui inheritance agriculture See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe beiju food meu meu inheritance usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits See Language page
starch (tapioca, other) almidón goma de tapioca food uwi, uy uwi, uj semantic shift from 'farinha' See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau cahuana, caguana mingau food missing agriculture See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer) tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca tipiti food waruna waruna unknown word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc See Language page
tripod for washing manioc trípode tripé subsistence tool agriculture See Language page
venom for darts, poison veneno curare subsistence tool wɨrari wɨɾaɾi doubtful loan - WW %wirari hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?) See Language page
woven strainer/sieve colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru) peneira, cumatá subsistence tool yumukuatata jumukuatata doubtful loan Tukanoan 'mingau' agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour See Language page
bait for fishing cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru) isca subsistence tool can refer to worms; more generic See Language page
fishtrap trampa de peces, trampa matapi, cacuri subsistence tool See Language page
bottom grinding stone manufacture itaki itaki if different word from top grinding stone See Language page
digging stick subsistence tool See Language page
top grinding stone metate, mano; piedra de moler metate, mano manufacture use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic) subsistence tool See Language page
spearthrower subsistence tool See Language page
house other uca uka inheritance See Language page


Grammatical Data (226)
Category Grammatical Feature Grammatical Feature: Notes Feature Status Grammatical Notes Source Etymology Notes General Notes Phylogenetic Code
Phonology - Segmental Pre-/post-nasalized stops Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive. no Vallejos 2010:93-103
Phonology - Segmental Glottalized/ejective consonants Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative] no Vallejos 2010:93-103
Phonology - Segmental Palatalized stops Phonemic contrast no Vallejos 2010:93-103
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic vowel length Does the language have long and short vowels? no Vallejos 2010:106-110
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels no Vallejos 2010:106-110
Phonology - Segmental Complex onsets Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme yes Vallejos 2010:112
Phonology - Segmental No codas *(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained] no Vallejos 2010:112
Phonology - Segmental Word-final coda required Do all syllables end in a consonant? no Vallejos 2010:112
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive tones Note how many contrastive tones no Vallejos 2010
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive stress Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference? no Vallejos 2010
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments no Vallejos 2010
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to? no Vallejos 2010
Phonology - Suprasegmental Vowel harmony no Vallejos 2010
Morphology - General Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb) Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number] no Vallejos 2010
Morphology - General Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes Stem change, tone no not likely Vallejos 2010
Morphology - General Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes) Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word no language is isolating Vallejos 2010:143
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing There are many more prefixes than suffixes no Vallejos 2010:143
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing There are many more suffixes than prefixes no Vallejos 2010:143
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different yes Vallejos 2010:143
Morphology - General Reduplication: full The full morpheme is reduplicated no there is partial redup., but rare Vallejos 2010:153-154
Morphology - General Reduplication: partial Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated yes Vallejos 2010:153-154
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive NN compounding Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced yes Vallejos 2010:155
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV serialization (without compounding) Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection no not likely productive, but the author does not explicitly states it Vallejos 2010:155
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV compounding Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word no not likely since language is isolating Vallejos 2010:155
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap' no Vallejos 2010
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Auxiliary verb(s) There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs yes Vallejos 2010:402
Morphology - Incorporation Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process Verb contains nominal segment no Vallejos 2010
Morphology - Incorporation Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classes/genders Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Number of noun classes/genders Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders 0 Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders) Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain. no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates Masculine, feminine, neuter no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system Animate/inanimate, human/non-human no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification "Repeater" classifiers Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot" no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals) Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.' no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Number Singular number may be marked on the noun Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups no Vallejos 2010:160
Nominal Categories - Number Plural affix on noun no Vallejos 2010:42
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun no Vallejos 2010:42
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by reduplication of noun no Vallejos 2010:42
Nominal Categories - Number Plural word/clitic yes male speech, female speech Vallejos 2010:160
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked on human or animate nouns only no example (23b) marks inanimate Vallejos 2010:161
Nominal Categories - Number Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns no
Nominal Categories - Number Unique associative plural marker e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them' no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Definite or specific articles Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness no demonstratives used for definiteness Vallejos 2010:218
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Indefinite or non-specific article or marker no Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you yes Vallejos 2010:201
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound) no no verbal inflection Vallejos 2010
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number) Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system 2 proximate/non-proximate Vallejos 2010:214
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.) no Vallejos 2010:214
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3sg pronouns no different sets of pronouns for male vs. female speech Vallejos 2010:201
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3pl pronouns no different sets of pronouns for male vs. female speech Vallejos 2010:201
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns no Vallejos 2010:201-213
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Formal/informal distinction in pronouns Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns no Vallejos 2010:201-213
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Reflexive pronouns e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix no Vallejos 2010:201-213
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Adpositions mark core NPs Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients no Vallejos 2010:517-521
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: number of cases Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun 10 marked by postposition Vallejos 2010:279-304
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are yes Vallejos 2010:518 two types of dative markers: one for interlocutors and another for intralocutors
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: symmetrical All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity) yes Vallejos 2010:279-304
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: asymmetrical Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates no Vallejos 2010:279-304
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: suffix or postpositional clitic yes marked by postposition Vallejos 2010:279-304
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: prefix or prepositional clitic no Vallejos 2010:279-304
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: infix or inpositional clitic no Vallejos 2010:279-304
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: stem change no Vallejos 2010:279-304
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: tone no Vallejos 2010:279-304
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: comitative = instrumental Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument' no two instrumentals, one commitative Vallejos 2010:280-285
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-2 At least some part of the system involves base-2 no Vallejos 2010:264
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-5 At least some part of the system involves base-5 no Vallejos 2010:264
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-10 At least some part of the system involves base-10 yes Vallejos 2010:264
Nominal Categories - Numerals Other base (specify) 4, 20, etc. no Vallejos 2010:264
Nominal Categories - Numerals Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5 e.g. two = 'eye-quantity' no Vallejos 2010:264
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 5 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no Vallejos 2010:264
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 10 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no Vallejos 2010:264
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival yes on nouns Vallejos 2010:426
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Person inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival no no person inflection Vallejos 2010:426
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N alienable/inalienable? yes proclitic on noun Vallejos 2010:274-276
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N alienable/inalienable? no Vallejos 2010:274-276
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent e.g. 'the boy-'s dog' no Vallejos 2010:274-276
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head e.g. 'the boy his-dog' yes Vallejos 2010:274-276
Nominal Syntax - Possession Possessive classifiers There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities no Vallejos 2010:274-276
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of inalienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no info Vallejos 2010:274-276
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of alienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no info Vallejos 2010:274-276
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form no info Vallejos 2010:274-276
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of kin terms 'my-father' but *father no info Vallejos 2010:274-276
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal) 'my-leg' but *leg no info Vallejos 2010:274-276
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man) no Vallejos 2010:274-276
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Underived adjectives There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes no author only discusses adj.-like VPs. Adj word class not apparent Vallejos 2010
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco no author only discusses adj.-like VPs. Adj word class not apparent Vallejos 2010
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival) There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb no
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer) There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb yes Vallejos 2010:230
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song) There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb yes Vallejos 2010:234
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive verbalizing morphology There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective yes Vallejos 2010:385-393
Nominal Syntax - Other NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently 'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary' no info Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated past marker(s) Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere yes marked by enclitic Vallejos 2010:473
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. distant vs. recent past yes immediate, medial and remote pasts Vallejos 2010:473
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. imminent vs. distant future yes immediate and remote futures Vallejos 2010:478-481
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated future or non-past marker(s) yes Vallejos 2010:478-481
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: prefix no Vallejos 2010:473
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: suffix no Vallejos 2010:473
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut no Vallejos 2010:473
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect suppletion no Vallejos 2010:473
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood no Vallejos 2010:548
Verbal Categories - Mood Polite imperative morpheme There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language) yes Vallejos 2010:559
Verbal Categories - Mood Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses yes prohibitive marked by a particle Vallejos 2010:561
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative) as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing' no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: affix on verb Inflectional marking of capacity to do something no Vallejos 2010:492
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: verbal construction no Vallejos 2010:492
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: other marking yes marked by enclitic Vallejos 2010:492
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: affix on verb Modal expressing hypothesis no Vallejos 2010:500
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: verbal construction yes marked by enclitic/particle Vallejos 2010:500
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: other marking no Vallejos 2010:500
Verbal Categories - Mood Marking of expected/unexpected action or result There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal frustrative Modal expressing frustration ("in vain") no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal habitual Modal expressing habituality yes habitual auxiliary Vallejos 2010:403
Verbal Categories - Mood Apprehensive construction There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens' yes enclitic Vallejos 2010:485
Verbal Categories - Mood Reality status marking on verbs There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events' no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Mood Affect markers (positive/negative) Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Directionals Directional elements affixed to the verb There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc. no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized visual Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized nonvisual Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt) no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized inferential Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker. no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized reportive Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly' yes Vallejos 2010:494
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized quotative Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse yes two quotative particles Vallejos 2010:172
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Other evidential Any other evidential values not represented above no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic yes Vallejos 2010:494
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: part of tense system Includes portmanteau morphs no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: separate particle yes Vallejos 2010:172
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: modal morpheme no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Verbal number Verbal number suppletion no Vallejos 2010
Verbal Categories - Other Social interaction markers Note the type of interaction no Vallejos 2010
Word Order No fixed basic constituent order no SVO is pragmatically unmarked Vallejos 2010:466
Word Order VS in intransitive clauses Verb precedes subject no Vallejos 2010:466
Word Order VS in transitive clauses no Vallejos 2010:466
Word Order VO in transitive clauses Verb precedes object yes Vallejos 2010:466
Word Order OS in transitive clauses Object precedes subject no Vallejos 2010:466
Word Order Preposition-Noun no Vallejos 2010:163,279-306
Word Order Noun-Postposition or case suffix yes Vallejos 2010:163,279-306
Word Order Gen-Noun Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book) yes Vallejos 2010:251
Word Order Noun-Gen Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John') no Vallejos 2010:251
Word Order Adj-Noun Adjective precedes the noun no no adjective in Kokama Vallejos 2010
Word Order Noun-Adj Adjective follows the noun no no adjective in Kokama Vallejos 2010
Word Order Demonstrative-Noun yes Vallejos 2010:214-217
Word Order Noun-Demonstrative no Vallejos 2010:214-217
Word Order Num-Noun yes Vallejos 2010:265
Word Order Noun-Num no Vallejos 2010:265
Word Order Noun-Rel Relative clause follows noun that it modifies yes RC can precede or follow the head noun Vallejos 2010:585
Word Order Rel-Noun Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies yes RC can precede or follow the head noun Vallejos 2010:586
Word Order Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative) e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away') no Vallejos 2010:584
Word Order Relative clause is correlative or adjoined e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat' no
Word Order Question word is clause initial 'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause yes Vallejos 2010:545
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects no NPs are not marked for core cases Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked no NPs are not marked for core cases Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker no NPs are not marked for core cases Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers no NPs are not marked for core cases Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep) no NPs are not marked for core cases Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative yes only in the 3rd person. Different forms for the 3rd person sg if an object Vallejos 2010:201
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3) no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: split More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc. no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects yes Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option) no however, a pronoun may be optionally cliticized to the verb phonologically Vallejos 2010:210
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option) no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. yes Vallejos 2010:210
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking on intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes yes a pronoun may be cliticized Vallejos 2010:210
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take object (P) markers no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects 3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects 3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Number can be marked separately from person on the verb Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes yes only because Kokama has one set of pronouns that can have different functions
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Gender distinguished in verbal person markers For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: indirect object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently yes recipient is marked by a dative enclitic Vallejos 2010:524
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: double object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives no recipient is marked by a dative enclitic Vallejos 2010:524
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: secondary object In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently no recipient is marked by a dative enclitic Vallejos 2010:524
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal. no Vallejos 2010:336
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reflexive: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive. no Vallejos 2010:336
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb yes -ka marks several different related functions Vallejos 2010:336
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Passive Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted no Vallejos 2010:372
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Antipassive Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages no Vallejos 2010:372
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Other intransitivizing morphology There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: benefactive Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb yes Vallejos 2010:380
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: other Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb no Vallejos 2010:380
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: prefix Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb no Vallejos 2010:373
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: suffix Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb yes Vallejos 2010:373
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix no Vallejos 2010:373
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: serial verb or analytical construction Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization no Vallejos 2010:373
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy' Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.' no Vallejos 2010:373
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated sociative Indicates that causer participates in event no Vallejos 2010:373
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence) There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency no Vallejos 2010:373
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a preposed element Clausal negator is a preposed element yes immediately precedes constituent Vallejos 2010:531
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a postposed element Clausal negator is a postposed element no Vallejos 2010:531
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: affix Negatives: affix no Vallejos 2010:531
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: particle Negatives: particle yes Vallejos 2010:531
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: auxiliary verb Negatives: auxiliary verb no Vallejos 2010:531
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: double Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas' no Vallejos 2010:531
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist' no tɨma emete 'NEG exist' Vallejos 2010:446
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative expression 'I don't know' Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: interrogative particle Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle no Vallejos 2010:537
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: verb morphology Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology yes Vallejos 2010:537
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: word order Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) yes Vallejos 2010:537
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: intonation only Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only no Vallejos 2010:537
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Content questions: word order differs from declaratives Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.) yes Vallejos 2010:544
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: verbal Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position no no adjective in Kokama Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: nominal Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position no no adjective in Kokama Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Predication Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all) yes Vallejos 2010:423
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head) yes Vallejos 2010:583
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses. no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Predication Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Predication Relativizer is a verbal affix yes Vallejos 2010:567
Simple Clauses - Predication Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes) no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions Grammaticalized verbal desiderative Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it) no Vallejos 2010
Simple Clauses - Other Clause chaining Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause. no Vallejos 2010:567-665
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked switch-reference system There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined no Vallejos 2010:567-665
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence no Vallejos 2010:567-665