Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors

Yine

Family
Arawakan
Region
South America
ISO 639-3
pib
Location
-11.11°, -73.31°
Notes
Closely related to Mashco Piro (uncontacted group). Vocabulary data source (IDS) states that data is Mashco Piro, but actually draws on Yine materials.
Features
Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Data Sources
Key, Mary Ritchie, from Joyce Nies, 1986 Diccionario Piro, Pucallpa, Peru. Matteson, Esther [various publications]. 2007. Mashco Piro. Intercontinental Dictionary Series, ed. Mary Ritchie Key. Matteson, Esther. 1965. The Piro (Arawakan) language. University of California Publications in Linguistics, 42. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California.


Basic Vocabulary (191)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes General Notes Source
above encima, arriba acima location See Language page
and y e grammar See Language page
ash ceniza(s) cinzas environment čiči-pahi pahi is 'dust' 01.213, also used in 'pollen'. See Language page
at en, a em, a location See Language page
back espalda costas body tʸi See Language page
bad mal mal quality See Language page
belly barriga barriga body hička-mapa 'Abdomen' is nanwaka; satɨ; 'large abdomen' is čkete; 'lower abdomen' is skota; 'upper abdomen' is hema. *Piro-Apuriná forms are *ti'ka-te/ko; *hi-tika-mapa/ko. See Language page
below abajo, debajo abaixo location See Language page
big grande grande quality See Language page
black negro preto colour ksaxi See Language page
blood sangre sangue body #NAME? To be bloody is xra. *Piro-Apuriná form is *hira-'ka/ha. See Language page
boil/pimple espinilla, granos espinha, borbulha body yma A tiny boil is košičisrɨ. To have a boil is yoma-wata. See Language page
bone hueso osso body ha-pɨ *Piro-Apuriná form is *'ha-pɨ. See Language page
breast pecho, seno peito body sta; t-nɨ Latter is woman's breast. In baby talk it is čočo. *Piro-Apuriná form is *'tɨ-nɨ. See Language page
child niño, niña criança human whene ~ wɨhene See Language page
cloud nube nuvem environment kyačhapererɨmko See Language page
cold frío frio quality kačik-ľe-rɨ *Piro-Apuriná form is *kac̷ĩka-'ri. See Language page
correct/true verdad, de veras verdade quality See Language page
day día dia time po-kamľa-ľɨ *Piro-Apuriná form is *po-kamara-rɨ. See Language page
dirty sucio sujo quality See Language page
dingo/wolf fauna See Language page
dry seco seco quality See Language page
dull/blunt sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo maçante, desamolado, não afiado quality See Language page
dust polvo poeira environment pahi Also čixi pahi. Cf. 'ashes' 01.840; hwɨ-pahi is 'pollen', lit. 'flower-dust/particles'. *Piro-Apuriná form is *'pa-hi-nɨ. See Language page
ear oreja orelha body xnako; xepi *Piro-Apuriná form is *kẽ'pi-ta. See Language page
earth/soil tierra terra environment See Language page
egg huevo ovo fauna naxi *Piro-Apuriná form is *'nakɨ. See Language page
eye ojo olho body yhaľe; ha The latter is used in compounds. 'Eyeball' is yhaľsahi. 'Pupil of eye' is ksaxire-yhaľe. See Language page
far lejos longe quality See Language page
fat/grease grasa gordura body nhi-či Also kpitʸowaka. 'Oily' is xhi. *Piro-Apuriná form is *n-hĩ-c̷i. See Language page
father padre, papá pai kinship hi-rɨ; pa-tɨ Vocative form is pa-pa. *Piro-Apurina forms are *'hɨ-rɨ; *pa-tɨ/pa. See Language page
feather pluma pena fauna mexi 'Small feather' is pitʸi. 'Plumage' is paxi. *Piro-Apuriná form is *'piti. See Language page
fire fuego fogo environment yošika Means to make fire; to fix the fire is yotʸpaka. See Language page
flower flor flor environment hwɨ ~ howɨ *Piro-Apuriná form is *'hõwi. See Language page
fog niebla, neblina nevoeira, bruma, neblina environment kyačhapererɨmko Also yačhapere. See Language page
fruit fruta fruta flora See Language page
good bueno bom quality kihľe *Piro-Apuriná form is *ki-ha're-ka. See Language page
hair (of head) cabello cabelo body xiwɨ-c̷a Bushy hair is šehko. See Language page
hand mano mão body myo See Language page
3sg el/ella ele/ela grammar waľe; waľa Respectively: 'he; she'. 'Her' is to-, o-. *Piro-Apuriná form for 'her' is *to. See Language page
head cabeza cabeça body xiwɨ *Piro-Apuriná form is *'kɨwɨ. See Language page
heavy pesado pesado quality hi-no-ľɨ *Piro-Apuriná form is *(m)ina/o. See Language page
how? como como grammar See Language page
1sg yo eu grammar hita; -no My' is no-; n-. *Piro-Apuriná form for 'I' is *hi/'no-ta; for 'my' is *n(V)-. See Language page
if si se grammar See Language page
in/inside dentro, adentro dentro location hitoko; nanwaka See Language page
intestines intestinos intestinos body hičkapi See Language page
lake lago lago environment pow-ha; wenɨ Also hi-pow-ha. *Piro-Apuriná form is *hɨ-powa-ha. See Language page
leaf hoja folha environment sɨre See Language page
left/left hand izquierdo esquerdo location/body kehnete See Language page
leg/foot pierna perna body ksɨxe; tpaľi Respectively: lower and upper leg. 'Femur (thighbone)' is tpaľ-hapɨ. See Language page
lightning rayo, relámpago relampago environment rawrakľe See Language page
liver hígado figado body ho-pna *Piro-Apuriná form is *-'pana. See Language page
long largo comprido, longo quality See Language page
louse piollo, piojo piolho fauna xepa; šep-či *Piro-Apuriná form is *ke-pa-c̷i. See Language page
man/male hombre homem human xexi *Piro-Apuriná form is *'keki. See Language page
meat/flesh carne carne fauna nikči-hitɨ See Language page
moon luna lua environment ksɨ-rɨ Also means 'month' 14.710. To be full moon is tɨpľakwahata. *Piro-Apuriná form is *ka'sɨ-rɨ. See Language page
mother madre, mamá mãe kinship nato; hin-ro Vocative form is mama. *Piro-Apuriná form is *'na-to/ro. See Language page
mouth boca boca body nama *Piro-Apuriná form is *-'nama. See Language page
name nombre nome human hi-waka *Piro-Apuriná form is *hɨ-'waka. See Language page
near/close cerca de perto quality See Language page
nape base del cuello, nuca nuca body paxnohi / noxi (?) See Language page
neck cuello pescoço body noxi Especially back of neck. Neck of water jar is noxi-ta. *Piro-Apuriná form is *-'no-pi/ki. See Language page
new nuevo novo quality See Language page
night noche noite time See Language page
no/not no não grammar See Language page
nose nariz nariz body xri Also refers to 'prow'. 'Snout' is smitʸi; šrište. 'Bridge of nose' is skoma-xri. *Piro-Apuriná form is *ki'ri-ta. See Language page
old viejo velho quality c̷-rɨ *Piro-Apuriná form is *mi-c̷i-rV. See Language page
one uno um number pa; satɨ See Language page
other otro outro grammar See Language page
pain/painful/sick dolor, doloroso, enfermo dor, doloroso, doente body kapo-haľɨ; poha To be sick is hahixewna; yayitʸa. *Piro-Apuriná form is *põhã. See Language page
person/human being persona pessoa human Indian of another tribe is payinerɨ. See Language page
rain lluvia chuva environment hina; neka See Language page
red rojo vermelho colour sero See Language page
right/right hand derecha direita location/body potɨkľe See Language page
road/path camino caminho manufacture hapo *Piro-Apuriná form is *ha'po-rɨ. See Language page
root raíz raiz flora ko-c̷a; c̷ki *Piro-Apuriná form is *koc̷a. See Language page
rotten podrido podre quality See Language page
sand arena areia environment ksatɨ See Language page
sharp afilado, filudo, filoso afiado quality phewna See Language page
short corto curto quality See Language page
shoulder hombro ombro body sko-thana; thana See Language page
shy/ashamed tímido, vergonzoso timido, com vergonha mental See Language page
skin piel pele body nikči-mta; mta *Piro-Apuriná form is *'mata. See Language page
sky cielo céu environment teno; tenhohne *Piro-Apuriná form is *te/ano. See Language page
small pequeño pequeno quality mtɨ-rɨ *Piro-Apuriná form is *aše-mɨ'tɨ-rV. See Language page
smoke humo fumaça environment či-či-phya Also himoľita; himomophyata. *Piro-Apuriná form is *c̷i-'c̷i-(ph)ĩã. See Language page
star estrella estrela environment katahiri 'Evening star' is kayikawsahi; 'morning star' is honsahi; 'Pleiades' is kačkehiri. See Language page
stick/wood palo pau, vara flora hah-mɨna; mɨna See Language page
stone piedra pedra environment sotľɨ See Language page
tail cola, rabo rabo body nši *Piro-Apuriná form is *-n-'si-pi. See Language page
that ese/esa esse grammar See Language page
3pl ellos/ellas eles/elas grammar See Language page
thick grueso, gordo, espeso grosso quality See Language page
thin delgado fino quality See Language page
this este/esta este grammar See Language page
2sg xx xx grammar pitʸa; p-; pɨ- *Piro-Apuriná forms are *pitia; *p-; *pɨ-. See Language page
throat garganta garganta body pľa 'Esophagus' is pľa-c̷a. See Language page
three tres tres number mapa See Language page
thunder truenos trovão environment hitľohita 'Faint thunder' is wroľoxi. See Language page
bite morder morder body haškaka; -ta Also hapšeka, to bite into; hastaka, to bite off. See Language page
blow soplar soprar body haxpoka To blow on is haxpota. See Language page
breathe respirar respirar body hinˑiphya; nˑiphya See Language page
burn quemar queimar environment See Language page
chew masticar, mascar mastigar body hawiyaka To chew in order to soften is hamľoka. See Language page
climb subir subir motion See Language page
come venir vir motion hina *Piro-Apuriná form is *hɨ'nãã. See Language page
cook cocinar cozinhar impact See Language page
count contar contar mental yanta-ta 'Counted' is ka-yaho. *Piro-Apuriná form is *ya-wa-'nã-ta. See Language page
cry llorar chorar mental čiyaha-ta; sapľe *Piro-Apuriná form is *c̷iya-ha/pa-ta. See Language page
cut/hack cortar cortar impact See Language page
die/be dead morir morrer state hi-pna; hipɨka Respectively: 'die' and 'death'. *Piro-Apuriná form is *hɨ-pɨna. See Language page
dig cavar cavar impact See Language page
dream soñar sonhar mental hipnawata See Language page
drink beber, tomar beber body hašroka See Language page
eat comer comer body nika *Piro-Apuriná form is *'nika. See Language page
fall caer cair motion hixrɨ-ka *Piro-Apuriná form is *hi-ki-rɨ-ka-. See Language page
fear miedo medo mental pika *Piro-Apuriná form is *'pɨ̃ka. See Language page
flow fluir fluir motion ha-po-ha-ta *Piro-Apuriná form is *ha-po'ha-ta. See Language page
fly volar voar motion haľna *Piro-Apuriná form is *ha'rã-na. See Language page
grow crecer crescer state c̷erɨwna See Language page
hear oír ouvir mental xema; yixnakota *Piro-Apuriná form is *kema-. See Language page
hide esconder esconder motion See Language page
hit golpear, pegar bater impact See Language page
hold correr, asegurar, sostener segurar other See Language page
kill matar matar impact hiyľata; kama-ka-ta *Piro-Apuriná form is *'o-ka-ma-. See Language page
know/be knowledgeable saber, conecer saber, conhecer mental himata *Piro-Apuriná form is *hɨmata. See Language page
laugh reír rir mental hic̷oľhiwata Fluctuates with hic̷oľhɨwata. See Language page
lie down acostarse, echarse deitar motion See Language page
live/be alive vivir viver, morar body hiweka See Language page
open/uncover abrir abrir other See Language page
pound/beat machacar, golpear bater impact See Language page
say decir dizer mental See Language page
scratch rascar rasgar impact See Language page
see ver ver mental heta See Language page
shoot tirar, disparar, balear atirar impact See Language page
sit sentar(se) sentar state tɨpľa-ta *Piro-Apuriná form is *to/ɨ'pãra-ka-ta. See Language page
sleep dormir dormir body himka ~ himaka Also hiphya ~ hopha. *Piro-Apuriná form is *hi-'maka. See Language page
sniff/smell olfatear, oler cheirar body primarily transitive See Language page
spit escupir cuspir body c̷kaha Verbal form is hic̷kahata; also hapľika, to spit out. See Language page
split partir, dividir rachar, dividir, partir impact See Language page
squeeze estrujar, exprimir espremer impact See Language page
stab/pierce apuñalar, acuchillar apunhalar impact See Language page
stand estar de pié ficar em pé state tɨn-wa-ta *Piro-Apuriná form is *tɨnwa-ta. See Language page
steal robar roubar other See Language page
suck chupar chupar body haši-ča Means to suckle. Also hačiča. *Piro-Apuriná form is *ha'si-ta. See Language page
swell hincharse inchar body hanka; hanka-xrɨ *Piro-Apuriná form is *ha'na-na/ka. See Language page
swim nadar nadar motion ha-noha-ta *Piro-Apuriná form is *hanohã-ta. See Language page
think pensar pensar mental hi-šinika *Piro-Apuriná form is *-sinɨka-. See Language page
throw tirar, lanzar atirar, jogar impact See Language page
tie up/fasten atar, amarrar amarrar impact hišrika See Language page
turn girar, volter, torcer virar other may be transitive or intransitive See Language page
vomit vomitar vomitar body hapľita To try to v. is yotokota. See Language page
walk caminar, andar andar motion yana See Language page
work trabajar trabalhar other kamrɨrči See Language page
yawn bostezar bocejar body haphatata See Language page
tongue lengua lingua body nnɨ 'Tip of the tongue' is ptonˑɨ. *Piro-Apuriná form is *'nɨnɨ. See Language page
tooth diente dente body yhi 'Cuspid' is hapkaxere. See Language page
two dos dois number hepi *Piro-Apuriná form is *hepi. See Language page
water agua agua environment ha; honɨ 'Churning water' is pomča. 'Fluid' is xha; xpa. See Language page
1pl.incl nosotros (inclusivo) nós (inclusivo) grammar no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted See Language page
1pl.excl nosotros (exclusivo) nós (exclusivo) grammar See Language page
wet mojado molhado quality hi-ha-ka; kha *Piro-Apuriná form is *hɨ̃-hã-ka. See Language page
what? que, qué que grammar kľa; kľɨ See Language page
when? cuando quando grammar hikľɨ See Language page
where? donde onde grammar hinaka See Language page
white blanco branco colour kľata See Language page
who? quien, quién quem grammar katɨ See Language page
wife esposa esposa kinship hanɨnro ~ hnɨnro See Language page
wind viento vento environment nˑiphya; hawoka A cold wind is hanˑatɨ. A breeze is kawľerɨ. See Language page
wing ala asa body mexi *Piro-Apuriná form is *'mẽki. See Language page
woman/female mujer mulher human sɨtʸo *Piro-Apuriná form is *sɨitio. See Language page
yellow amarillo amarelo colour pwaľo To color yellow is powaľota. See Language page
2pl ustedes vocês grammar hitʸa; hi- *Piro-Apuriná form is *'hĩtia; *hĩ-. See Language page
foot pie pé body xitʸi 'Sole of foot' is stap-xitʸi. *Piro-Apuriná form is *'kiti. See Language page
again de nuevo, otra vez de novo grammar See Language page
all todo todos other pexnɨ; ptowrɨ *Piro-Apuriná form is *pa'kɨ-nɨ. See Language page
ankle tobillo tornozelo body yhalexi See Language page
armpit axila, sobaco axila body kxepɨ See Language page
faeces heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol fezes body hička-ta Excrement' is hička; čki. See Language page
lung pulmón pulmão body čiyľe ~ čiiľe See Language page
sweat sudar suor, suar body hinkoka To perspire at night is pohnanɨwata. See Language page
itch hormiguear, sentir comezón coçar body hahrɨ Verbal forms are hahita; hamľaka; hamľaxita; kaxitewata. See Language page
bark corteza casca environment mta; pata Former also means 'skin' 04.120. *Piro-Apuriná form is *'mata. See Language page
fingernail uña unha body sewata *Piro-Apuriná form is *'sewata. See Language page
heart corazón coração body haxi *Piro-Apuriná form is *ha'ki-pa. See Language page
sun sol sol time tka-či *Piro-Apuriná form is *ata'ka-č/c̷i. See Language page
mountain/hill montaña, colina, loma, cerro morro, serra environment mahka; pxita Also c̷rɨpxita. Foot of h. is mahka c̷kata; slope of h. is mahka xripi; summit of h. is mahka c̷opo; hillside is mahka tamnɨ; crest of hill is mrixi. See Language page
green verde verde quality See Language page
hot caliente quente quality See Language page


Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Linnean Name Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Etymology Notes Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Range of Term Word Structure Word Structure Notes Classifier Classifier Notes Hypernym Source Association with Social Categories Ritual/Mythologically Significant Ritual Notes Food Source Food Notes Medicinal Medicinal Notes How Collected Who Collects How Prepared Psychotropic Psychotropic Notes Traded Trade Notes Distribution Habitat Dangerous Ethnobiology Notes Species Notes General Notes
bat murciélago morcego flora-fauna Chiroptera spp. šyo See Language page *Piro-Apuriná form is *siyo-piri.
bird pajaro, ave passaro flora-fauna koši-či See Language page *Piro-Apuriná form is *ko-si-ti-pi-ri-ki.
curassow mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini) mutum flora-fauna Crax sp., Nothocrax sp. See Language page Amazonia
toucan tucán, pinsha (Peru) tucano flora-fauna Ramphastos sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
gray-winged trumpeter Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris jacamim flora-fauna Psophia crepitans See Language page Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
guan pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru) jacu flora-fauna Penelope sp. See Language page Different types have different localized ranges
tinamou tinamu, perdiz, gallineta inambu, inhambu flora-fauna family Tinamidae See Language page Widespread Amazonia
hummingbird colibrí, picaflor (Peru) beija-flor flora-fauna family Trochilidae See Language page Widespread
kingfisher martín pescador, catalan (Peru) martim-pescador flora-fauna family Alcedinidae See Language page Widespread Amazonia
owl (large) búho, lechuza corujão flora-fauna order Strigiformes hnono; mosa See Language page Widespread Also pawaskiwa.
macaw ara, guacamaya Arara flora-fauna family Psittacidae; Ara sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
parrot loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib) papagaio flora-fauna Amazona amazonica See Language page Widespread 'Parakeet' is pčoľixi; c̷ɨnrɨxi and kočina, with *Piro-Apuriná form *koc̷ina-ke.
dove paloma pomba flora-fauna family Columbidae kamowa See Language page Also motkoko; trɨmoxi.
hawk halcón, gavilán gavião flora-fauna family Accipitridae koyano; koyataľe See Language page Also pakča; šixhinro; škirɨ.
vulture buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru) urubu flora-fauna family Cathartidae may-ľɨ See Language page Widespread South America Also serotľapaľɨ, a red-headed v.; kľatataľɨ, a white v. *Piro-Apuriná form is *ma'yo-rɨ.
duck pato pato, marreco flora-fauna Anatidae family hopši See Language page *Piro-Apuriná form is *hopa-SI.
great egret Garza Blanca, Guyratî Garça-Branca-Grande flora-fauna Ardea alba See Language page Widespread South America
woodpecker pájaro carpintero, carpintero pica-pau flora-fauna family Picidae See Language page Widespread Amazonia
dog (camp, domestic) perro cachorro flora-fauna Canis famililaris See Language page Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog) sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta cachorro-do-mato flora-fauna Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis See Language page Widespread Amazonia
anteater oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus tamanduá flora-fauna Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater) See Language page Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo) tatu flora-fauna family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri See Language page Widespread in Amazonia
sloth pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru) macaco preguica flora-fauna Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
alligator, black caiman babilla; cachirre jacaré flora-fauna Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp. See Language page Throughout Amazonia Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
electric eel anguila eléctrica poraquê flora-fauna Electrophorus electricus See Language page
fish (generic) pez peixe flora-fauna šima See Language page Also hamxi-ro. *Piro-Apuriná forms are *si'ma-kɨ; *hamaki-rV.
pacu fish palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru) pacu flora-fauna Mylossoma sp. See Language page
pirana piraña, caribe piranha flora-fauna subfamily Serrasalmidae See Language page Widespread Amazonia
tigerfish taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru) traíra flora-fauna Hoplias sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
mandi catfish maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish) mandi flora-fauna Auchenipterus sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
speckled catfish surubí, pintadillo surubim, sorubim flora-fauna Pseudoplatystoma sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
toad sapo sapo flora-fauna order Anura See Language page
iguana iguana, garipiares (Colombia) camaleão flora-fauna Iguana sp. See Language page iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
small lizard lagartija calango flora-fauna order Squamata xpiro See Language page Also kočľa; mrato; tʸitʸwro.
stingray (generic) rayas látigo, raya arraia flora-fauna Potamotrygon sp. See Language page
crab cangrejo caranguejo flora-fauna infraorder Brachyura See Language page
anaconda anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande sucuri flora-fauna genus Eunectes See Language page Widespread Amazonia
boa boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura jiboia flora-fauna family Boidae, subf. Boinae See Language page
snake (generic) culebra, serpiente cobra flora-fauna himnɨ; pi See Language page *Piro-Apuriná forms are *hɨ'mɨnɨ; *pi.
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara jararaca flora-fauna Bothrops jararaca/atrox See Language page Widespread South America
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant) tortuga, morrocoy, motelo jabutí, tartaruga flora-fauna Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria čkipɨ; sɨprɨ See Language page Widespread The latter means 'tortoise'. *Piro-Apuriná forms are *c̷ikipɨ; *sɨ̃pɨ-rɨ.
Amazon dolphin bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco) boto cor-de-rosa flora-fauna Inia geoffrensis pes-ľɨ See Language page Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls Also seroxripiro. *Piro-Apuriná form is *pe'so-lV.
mushroom champiñón, hongo cogumelo flora-fauna (any edible generic) kačipɨ See Language page prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
black palm bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá bacaba flora-fauna Oenocarpus bacaba See Language page Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
açai palm huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia) açaí flora-fauna Euterpe sp. See Language page floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
miriti palm moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti buriti flora-fauna Mauritia flexuosa See Language page Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps trunks contain sago-like starch
palm for roof thatch pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná caraná flora-fauna Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana See Language page Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests palm
paxiuba palm pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba paxiuba flora-fauna Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea See Language page Widespread Amazonia palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol) pupunha flora-fauna Bactris gasipaes kiru kiru; polta-kirne [polta 'parrot'] 'pijuayo amarillo, pijuayo de papagayo (especie de palmera de fruto grasoso)' pijuayo, pifayo (palmera de frutos comstibles cuyo tallo sirve para hacer flechas y balistas) konreji 'pijuaillo (palmera pequeña parecida al pijuayo. Tiene fruto comestible)' (Nies 124) Nies 1986: 116
seje palm ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá patoá, patuá flora-fauna Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua See Language page mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
coca coca coca flora-fauna Erythroxylum coca See Language page secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes plant
cotton algodón algodão flora-fauna Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers) waphɨ See Language page secondary scrub vegetation *Piro-Apuriná form is *wa-ma-pehɨ.
kapok ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.) sumaumeira flora-fauna Ceiba pentandra See Language page northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas tree
hot pepper ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru) pimenta flora-fauna Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens See Language page secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden plant
peanut maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete amendoim flora-fauna Arachis hypogaea See Language page plant
pineapple piña abacaxi flora-fauna Ananas comosus See Language page plant
arrow cane, wildcane caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio flora-fauna Gynerium sagittatum See Language page tropical regions, especially river banks plant
banana, plantain banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano banana flora-fauna Musa sp. See Language page Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
beans frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas) feijão flora-fauna Phaseolus spp. See Language page Shape of a bean, banana, etc. is pɨ.
grass hierba, pasto capim, grama flora-fauna (generic) pekľo; kac̷-ľɨ See Language page *Piro-Apuriná form is *kac̷o-rɨ/ta.
maize, corn mazorca, maiz milho flora-fauna Zea mays šixi See Language page widespread, esp. in river floodplains *Piro-Apuriná form is *si-ki-mi.
tobacco tabaco tabaco flora-fauna Nicotiana tabacum yiri ~ hayi-re See Language page *Piro-Apuriná form is *ha-yui-ri.
tree árbol arvore flora-fauna hah-mɨna See Language page *Piro-Apuriná form is *haha-'mɨna.
achiote, anatto achiote urucum flora-fauna Bixa orellana See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens shrub
inga guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru) inga flora-fauna Inga spp. See Language page Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
avocado palta, aguacate abacate flora-fauna Persea americana See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens tree
bitterwood tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru) envira flora-fauna Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala See Language page secondary forests, native to Brazil tree
brazil nut castaña castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis) flora-fauna Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia'] See Language page 1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua. tree
cashew anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela) caju flora-fauna Anacardium occidentale / giganteum See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
genipap jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico genipapo, jenipapo flora-fauna Genipapa americana See Language page widespread lowland SA shrub
japurá oreja de murcielago japurá flora-fauna Erisma japura See Language page large tree
rubber tree (sorva) caucho, siringa, shiringa seringa, borracha flora-fauna Hevea sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia tree
ucuqui yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru) ucuqui flora-fauna Pouteria ucuqui See Language page native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
Amazon tree-grape uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.) cucura flora-fauna Pourouma cecropiifolia See Language page grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times a tree; not a true grape
manioc (bitter or generic) yuca brava mandioca flora-fauna Manihot esculenta kanrɨ See Language page not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition. Bitter manioc is kanrɨ.
manioc (sweet) yuca, caribe macaxeira flora-fauna Manihot esculenta ximeka See Language page Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
potato papa batata flora-fauna Solanum tuberosum See Language page secondary scrub vegetation compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara batata-doce flora-fauna Ipomoea batatas xipa-ľɨ See Language page *Piro-Apuriná form is *kɨ'pa-rɨ.
cará tuber, purple or white camote, sachapapa cará roxo, branco flora-fauna Dioscorea sp. See Language page secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings plant
tannia, yautia huitina (Peru), ñame taioba branca flora-fauna Xanthosoma spp. seroxiro See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree) calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara cabaça flora-fauna Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine) See Language page indigenous gardens plant; tree
squash calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru) abóbora flora-fauna Cucurbita sp. c̷oľya See Language page plant
cipó vine tamishi, bejuco, yare cipó flora-fauna Heteropsis spp. c̷a-pi; haha-pi-c̷a See Language page secondary forest, floodplain *Piro-Apuriná forms are *c̷a-pi-ri-ki; *haha-pi-a̷.
fish poison, barbasco barbasco, matapez (Colombia) timbó flora-fauna Lonchocarpus spp. See Language page secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation shrub/tree
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca ayahuasca, yage ayahuasca, caapi flora-fauna Banisteriopsis caapi See Language page semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW vine
hallucinogenic snuff vilca, cebil, yopo paricá, yopo flora-fauna Anadenanthera sp. or virola See Language page
insect (generic) insecto insecto flora-fauna generic See Language page
ant (generic) hormiga formiga flora-fauna Formicidae pokhi See Language page Also kačiči, with *Piro-Apuriná form *ka'c̷i-ti. *Piro-Apuriná form is *-pokhi.
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro tocandira flora-fauna Paraponera clavata See Language page
leaf-cutter ant Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse saúva flora-fauna Atta sp. See Language page
honeybee abeja abelha flora-fauna Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis šišri See Language page Also popnixiro; wroľo. 'Bumble bee' is hanohyo; yatmeroxi.
cockroach cucaracha barata-do-mato flora-fauna order Blattaria kačipkočirotero See Language page Also maštataxro; šimtataxro.
firefly, lightning bug lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin) vagalume flora-fauna fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae See Language page
butterfly, moth mariposa borboleta flora-fauna order Lepidoptera katato See Language page
moth mariposa nocturna, polilla mariposa flora-fauna order Lepidoptera See Language page
angleworm lombriz minhoca flora-fauna order Opisthopora c̷omi See Language page Also piptʸo. *Piro-Apuriná form is *'c̷omi.
centipede ciempiés centopéia flora-fauna class Chilopoda ponro See Language page An edible centipede is šyopa.
scorpion escorpión; alacran escorpião flora-fauna order Scorpiones hekľo See Language page
cicada cigarra, chicharra cigarra flora-fauna super fam. Cicadoidea See Language page
flea pulga pulga flora-fauna order Siphonaptera kočopa See Language page
blowfly/housefly mosca mosca flora-fauna Diptera xemxerne; yowini See Language page
cricket saltón, grillo grilo flora-fauna family Gryllidae See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil) suri, mojojoy larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá flora-fauna Rhynchophorus sp. See Language page
praying mantis, stick insects mantis religiosa louva-a-deus flora-fauna order Mantodea, family Mantidae See Language page
mosquito mosquito, zancudo mosquito, carapana flora-fauna Anopheles sp. hahyo See Language page *Piro-Apuriná form is *ha'hio.
termites, white-ants comején (Peru), termitas cupim flora-fauna order Isoptera See Language page
tick garrapata carrapato flora-fauna superfam Ixodoidea See Language page
wasp avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa caba flora-fauna order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita sanɨ See Language page *Piro-Apuriná form is *'saanɨ.
snail caracol, churo (Peru) caracol flora-fauna class Gastropoda šišrikapi See Language page Also xitʸri; yonwaľoxi.
spider araña aranha flora-fauna Arachnidae, Araneae pɨthana See Language page Also kamčic̷kerɨ, daddy-long-legs. Also kamčic̷kenrɨ.
jaguar yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru) onca flora-fauna Panthera onca See Language page
manatee vaca marina, manatí peixe-boi flora-fauna Trichechus sp. See Language page
brown woolly monkey Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt macaco barrigudo flora-fauna Lagothrix lagothricha See Language page
howler monkey (red-handed) mono aullador, mono coto (Peru) guariba flora-fauna Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.] See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero macaco prego flora-fauna Cebus apella See Language page
white-fronted capuchin Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru) Caiarara flora-fauna Cebus albifrons See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia) macaco aranha, coatá, quatá flora-fauna Ateles belzebuth/paniscus See Language page
opossum zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo mucura flora-fauna family Didelphidae See Language page
giant otter Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria ariranha flora-fauna Pteronura brasiliensis See Language page
neotropical otter (small) Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia) lontra flora-fauna Lontra longicaudis See Language page
collared peccary sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar caititu, caetitu flora-fauna Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu See Language page
white-lipped peccary Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana queixada flora-fauna Tayassu pecari See Language page
porcupine puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru) cuandu, porco-espinho flora-fauna family Erethizontidae See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache quati flora-fauna genus Nasua See Language page
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti) Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado cutia flora-fauna Dasyprocta spp. See Language page
capybara Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco capivara flora-fauna Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris See Language page
green acouchi Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo cutiara flora-fauna Myoprocta pratti See Language page
paca (lowland) Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana) paca flora-fauna Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.) See Language page
mouse, rat ratón camundongo, rata flora-fauna Mus musculus See Language page A rodent is šino.
squirrel ardilla, danta (Ven) serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo flora-fauna family Sciuridae See Language page
tapir sachavaca, danta anta flora-fauna Tapirus terrestris See Language page
deer venado veado, cariacu flora-fauna family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus kšote-rɨ See Language page *Piro-Apuriná form is *k-s(i)'o-ti/e-rɨ.
horse caballo cavalho flora-fauna Equus caballus See Language page


Cultural Vocabulary (97)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes Word Structure Word Structure Notes General Notes Source
basket (general) canasta, canasto, cesta cesto culture-material koxi-ta *Piro-Apuriná form is *ko-ki-'ta-ri. See Language page
basket, small canasta, canasto, cesta cesto pequeno, tampado culture-material See Language page
bead abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar miçanga culture-material tɨwɨtɨ See Language page
bed cama cama culture-material xeko *Piro-Apuriná form is *i-'keko. See Language page
hammock hamaca, chinchorro rede culture-material See Language page
bench, seat banco, silla, asiento banco culture-material See Language page
canoe canoa canoa transport See Language page
drum (large signal) tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia) tambor culture Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances See Language page
drum tambor tambor culture-mythology See Language page
shaman, healer chamán, brujo xaman, pajé, feiticeiro culture-mythology In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv See Language page
healer curandero benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano) culture-mythology Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well. See Language page
broom escoba vassoura culture-material See Language page
clothing ropa roupa culture-mythology mka *Piro-Apuriná form is *'mãka. See Language page
fence, palisade cerco cerca other may be related to defense/warfare? See Language page
firewood leña lenha other čiči; hičima See Language page
Curupira (spirit type) Curupira, Madremonte Curupira culture-mythology malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio espirito culture-mythology samenɨ See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure dios(es), deidad divinidade, figura mítica culture-mythology In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc. See Language page
flute flauta, quena (Peru) flauta culture-mythology multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc. See Language page
panpipe carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora caniço, flauta de pã culture-mythology See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making canoa para chicha cocho de caxiri narcotics See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya) kapiwaya capiwaya culture-mythology See Language page
knife cuchillo faca culture-material wa-ta Refers to a bamboo knife. *Piro-Apurina form is *yo-'wa-ta. See Language page
machete machete facão culture-material See Language page
axe/stone axe hacha (de piedra) machado (de pedra) subsistence tool especially for clearing fields See Language page
arrow flecha flecha subsistence tool kašri *Piro-Apuriná form is *ka-siri-pi-c̷i. See Language page
spear lanza lança subsistence tool See Language page
bow arco arco subsistence tool twa (?) *Piro-Apuriná form is *ta'pwa. See Language page
paddle/oar remo remo transport See Language page
plate plato prato culture-material See Language page
pot olla, pote panela, vasilha subsistence tool See Language page
basin/bowl tazón, plato hondo, taza tijela culture-material koľpe-to *Piro-Apuriná form is *ko-ra-'pi-tV. See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru) forno para beiju subsistence tool agriculture? See Language page
rattle matraca, maraca marico, chocalho culture-mythology šakapaxi; škikixi See Language page
resin resina, brea, copal resina, brea, breu subsistence tool See Language page
wax cera cera other See Language page
honey miel mel food popnixirha; wroľ-ha Also to-ha, lit. 'her-liquid'; cf. 'water' 01.310. *Piro-Apuriná form is *(t)o-ha. See Language page
stone for lighting fires piedra para hacer fuego pedra para acender fogo culture-material See Language page
rope/string mecate, cuerda, soga corda culture c̷a Also means 'string'. *Piro-Apuriná form is *c̷a. See Language page
tattoo tatuaje, tatu tatuagem culture-mythology See Language page
thatch/roof crisneja palha, caraná culture-material See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women) yurupari jurupari culture-mythology a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women. See Language page
fetish, charm fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga feitiço, puçanga culture-mythology See Language page
feather headdress plumaje, corona de plumas enfeite/capacete de penas culture-mythology See Language page
paint body, body paint pintura corporal pintura corporal culture-mythology See Language page
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven tierra do los muertos terra dos mortos culture-mythology See Language page
school escuela escola acculturation See Language page
bottle botella garrafa acculturation See Language page
paper papel papel acculturation [kirɨka] See Language page
dream sueño, soñar sonho, sonhar culture-mythology hipnawata See Language page
chicken gallina galinha acculturation hatʸawripa See Language page
grave tumba, sepultura, sepulcro sepultura, sepulcro, cova culture-mythology yomľe See Language page
pipe for tobacco pipa cachimbo other kašimpo See Language page
sugarcane/sugar azúcar, caña de azúcar açucar (de cana) acculturation počwaksɨrɨ 'Cane' is kac̷ľɨ; wačkono; yapihaya. See Language page
skirt falda, saya, fustan, pollera saia culture-material See Language page
shoes zapatos sapatos dress See Language page
policeman polícia policía acculturation See Language page
soldier soldado soldado acculturation See Language page
cat gato gato acculturation mišito See Language page
gun arma, escopeta espingarda, fusil acculturation See Language page
hat sombero chapéu dress See Language page
chief/leader jefe, cacique chefe culture-mythology See Language page
club garrote, cachiporra clava, porrete subsistence tool See Language page
loincloth taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla tanga, tapa-sexo dress See Language page
fireplace hogar lareira other See Language page
fishing line cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze linha de pesca subsistence tool See Language page
salt sal sal food tɨwɨ; mro The latter means 'salty'. See Language page
song (generic) canción, canto canção culture-mythology šikaľe-ta Song' is šikaľɨ. *Piro-Apuriná form is *sikarV-ta. See Language page
blowgun cerbatana, pucuna (Peru) zarabatana subsistence tool currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region See Language page
dart (blowgun) dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru) dardo, seta subsistence tool hunting and warfare See Language page
fan abanico abanador, abano subsistence tool hepno-pi *Piro-Apuriná form is *hVpono-pi/ta. See Language page
fish (with line) anzuelear, pescar con linea pescar (com linha) food See Language page
fish (with fish-poison) pescar con barbasco, barbasquear pescar com timbó; tinguijar food See Language page
hunt cazar caçar food See Language page
game animal caza, animal de caza caça, animal de caça food pra; pɨra- The latter means 'to domesticate'. *Piro-Apuriná form is *pɨ'ra. See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl) cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo cuia subsistence tool See Language page
grater rallador, rallo ralador, ralo subsistence tool esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf) barbacoa jirau subsistence tool See Language page
mortar mortero pilão subsistence tool hitɨsc̷i See Language page
pestle pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor mão de pilão subsistence tool hitɨsc̷i See Language page
fermented drink masato, chicha caxiri, chicha culture prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made See Language page
flour/meal from manioc fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina farinha food agriculture See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe beiju food usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits See Language page
starch (tapioca, other) almidón goma de tapioca food See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau cahuana, caguana mingau food agriculture See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer) tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca tipiti food word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc See Language page
tripod for washing manioc trípode tripé subsistence tool agriculture See Language page
venom for darts, poison veneno curare subsistence tool hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?) See Language page
woven strainer/sieve colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru) peneira, cumatá subsistence tool agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour See Language page
bait for fishing cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru) isca subsistence tool can refer to worms; more generic See Language page
fishtrap trampa de peces, trampa matapi, cacuri subsistence tool See Language page
bottom grinding stone manufacture if different word from top grinding stone See Language page
digging stick subsistence tool See Language page
top grinding stone metate, mano; piedra de moler metate, mano manufacture use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic) subsistence tool See Language page
spearthrower subsistence tool See Language page
house other panči; pxi Settlement is -pok-či, with *Piro-Apuriná *aa-poko-c̷i. See Language page


Grammatical Data (226)
Category Grammatical Feature Grammatical Feature: Notes Feature Status Grammatical Notes Source Etymology Notes General Notes Phylogenetic Code
Phonology - Segmental Oral-nasal contour segments May be analyzed as oralized nasal consonants or as oral consonants with a nasal release. e.g. mb-, -bm no Matteson 1965
Phonology - Segmental Glottalized/ejective consonants Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative] no Matteson 1965
Phonology - Segmental Palatalized stops Phonemic contrast no Matteson 1965
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic vowel length Does the language have long and short vowels? yes Matteson 1965:25
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels no Matteson 1965
Phonology - Segmental Complex onsets Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme no Matteson 1965
Phonology - Segmental No codas *(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained] yes Matteson 1965:23
Phonology - Segmental Word-final coda required Do all syllables end in a consonant? no Matteson 1965
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive tones Note how many contrastive tones no Matteson 1965
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive stress Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference? no Matteson 1965
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments no Matteson 1965
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to? no Matteson 1965
Phonology - Suprasegmental Vowel harmony no Matteson 1965
Morphology - General Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb) Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number] no Matteson 1965
Morphology - General Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes Stem change, tone yes vowel length Matteson 1965
Morphology - General Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes) Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word Matteson 1965
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing There are many more prefixes than suffixes yes Matteson 1965
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing There are many more suffixes than prefixes no Matteson 1965
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different no Matteson 1965
Morphology - General Reduplication: full The full morpheme is reduplicated no info Matteson 1965
Morphology - General Reduplication: partial Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated no info Matteson 1965
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive NN compounding Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced no info Matteson 1965
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV serialization (without compounding) Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection no info Matteson 1965
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV compounding Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word no info Matteson 1965
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap' no info Matteson 1965
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Auxiliary verb(s) There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs no info Matteson 1965
Morphology - Incorporation Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process Verb contains nominal segment yes Matteson 1965:78
Morphology - Incorporation Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns yes incorporated locatives Matteson 1965:79
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classes/genders Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Number of noun classes/genders Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders) Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain. no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates Masculine, feminine, neuter no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system Animate/inanimate, human/non-human no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only yes Matteson 1965:93
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification "Repeater" classifiers Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot" no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals) Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.' no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Number Singular number may be marked on the noun Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Number Plural affix on noun yes Wise 1986:102
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by reduplication of noun no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Number Plural word/clitic no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked on human or animate nouns only yes Wise 1986:592
Nominal Categories - Number Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Number Unique associative plural marker e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them' no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Definite or specific articles Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness yes author only describes one article Matteson 1965:128
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Indefinite or non-specific article or marker no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you no Matteson 1965:106
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound) no Wise 1986:586
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number) Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system yes 2 distances (male, female, plural; near and distant respectively) Matteson 1965:107
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.) yes distant, not seen Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3sg pronouns yes Matteson 1965:106
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3pl pronouns no Matteson 1965:106
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns no Matteson 1965:106
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Formal/informal distinction in pronouns Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns no Matteson 1965:106
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Reflexive pronouns e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Adpositions mark core NPs Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients no only recipients Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: number of cases Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are yes recipient marked with an "indirective" Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: symmetrical All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity) yes Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: asymmetrical Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: suffix or postpositional clitic no no case markers Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: prefix or prepositional clitic no no case markers Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: infix or inpositional clitic no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: stem change no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: tone no Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: comitative = instrumental Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument' no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-2 At least some part of the system involves base-2 no Wise 1986:593
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-5 At least some part of the system involves base-5 no Wise 1986:593
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-10 At least some part of the system involves base-10 yes Wise 1986:593
Nominal Categories - Numerals Other base (specify) 4, 20, etc. no info Wise 1986:593
Nominal Categories - Numerals Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5 e.g. two = 'eye-quantity' yes 5 - one hand Matteson 1965
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 5 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no Matteson 1965:593
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 10 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no Matteson 1965:593
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival yes on nouns Matteson 1965:97
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Person inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival yes Matteson 1965:97
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N alienable/inalienable? yes Matteson 1965:94
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N alienable/inalienable? no Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent e.g. 'the boy-'s dog' no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head e.g. 'the boy his-dog' no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Possession Possessive classifiers There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of inalienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of alienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of kin terms 'my-father' but *father yes Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal) 'my-leg' but *leg yes Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man) no Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Underived adjectives There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes yes Matteson 1965:118
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival) There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer) There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song) There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive verbalizing morphology There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective no info Matteson 1965
Nominal Syntax - Other NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently 'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary' no info Matteson 1965
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated past marker(s) Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere no no tense markers Matteson 1965:72-73
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. distant vs. recent past no Matteson 1965:72-73
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. imminent vs. distant future no Matteson 1965:72-73
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated future or non-past marker(s) no Matteson 1965:72-73
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: prefix no Matteson 1965:72-73
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: suffix yes Matteson 1965:72-73
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut no Matteson 1965:72-73
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect suppletion no Matteson 1965:72-73
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood no Matteson 1965:72-73
Verbal Categories - Mood Polite imperative morpheme There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language) no Matteson 1965:72-73
Verbal Categories - Mood Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses no info Matteson 1965
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative) as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing' no Matteson 1965
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: affix on verb Inflectional marking of capacity to do something no Matteson 1965:70-81
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: verbal construction no info Matteson 1965:70-81
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: other marking no info Matteson 1965:70-81
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: affix on verb Modal expressing hypothesis no info Matteson 1965:70-81
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: verbal construction no info Matteson 1965:70-81
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: other marking no info Matteson 1965:70-81
Verbal Categories - Mood Marking of expected/unexpected action or result There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected no Matteson 1965:70-81
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal frustrative Modal expressing frustration ("in vain") yes Matteson 1965:70-81
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal habitual Modal expressing habituality no info Matteson 1965:70-81
Verbal Categories - Mood Apprehensive construction There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens' no info Matteson 1965:70-81
Verbal Categories - Mood Reality status marking on verbs There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events' no Matteson 1965:70-81
Verbal Categories - Mood Affect markers (positive/negative) Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative no Matteson 1965
Verbal Categories - Directionals Directional elements affixed to the verb There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc. no Matteson 1965
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized visual Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker no list of affixes does not mention evidentials Matteson 1965:71-80
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized nonvisual Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt) no list of affixes does not mention evidentials Matteson 1965:71-80
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized inferential Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker. no list of affixes does not mention evidentials Matteson 1965:71-80
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized reportive Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly' no list of affixes does not mention evidentials Matteson 1965:71-80
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized quotative Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse no list of affixes does not mention evidentials Matteson 1965:71-80
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Other evidential Any other evidential values not represented above no list of affixes does not mention evidentials Matteson 1965:71-80
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic no list of affixes does not mention evidentials Matteson 1965:71-80
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: part of tense system Includes portmanteau morphs no list of affixes does not mention evidentials Matteson 1965:71-80
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: separate particle no info Matteson 1965
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: modal morpheme no info Matteson 1965
Verbal Categories - Verbal number Verbal number suppletion no info Matteson 1965
Verbal Categories - Other Social interaction markers Note the type of interaction no Matteson 1965
Word Order No fixed basic constituent order no SOV Matteson 1965:39
Word Order VS in intransitive clauses Verb precedes subject no Matteson 1965:39
Word Order VS in transitive clauses no Matteson 1965:39
Word Order VO in transitive clauses Verb precedes object no Matteson 1965:39
Word Order OS in transitive clauses Object precedes subject no Matteson 1965:39
Word Order Preposition-Noun no Matteson 1965
Word Order Noun-Postposition or case suffix yes under postpositives Matteson 1965:126
Word Order Gen-Noun Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book) yes Matteson 1965:65
Word Order Noun-Gen Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John') no Matteson 1965:65
Word Order Adj-Noun Adjective precedes the noun no Matteson 1965
Word Order Noun-Adj Adjective follows the noun yes SComp and OComp Matteson 1965:68
Word Order Dem-Noun yes Matteson 1965
Word Order Noun-Dem no Matteson 1965
Word Order Num-Noun no info author does not indicate position Matteson 1965
Word Order Noun-Num no info author does not indicate position Matteson 1965
Word Order Noun-Rel Relative clause follows noun that it modifies no info author does not address relative clauses Matteson 1965
Word Order Rel-Noun Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies no info author does not address relative clauses Matteson 1965
Word Order Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative) e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away') no info author does not address relative clauses Matteson 1965
Word Order Relative clause is correlative or adjoined e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat' no info author does not address relative clauses Matteson 1965
Word Order Question word is clause initial 'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause yes Matteson 1965:57
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects no no case markers Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked no no case markers Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker no no case markers Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers no no case markers Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep) no no case markers Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs yes S of transitive and intransitive marked with the same prefixes, O marked with a suffix Wise 1986: 586
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3) no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: split More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc. no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects no rarely, they are mostly verbal markers Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option) yes Matteson 1965:72,
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option) no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking on intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes yes Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers yes prefix Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take object (P) markers no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects 3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system no Wise 1986:586
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects 3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Number can be marked separately from person on the verb Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately no Matteson 1965:72
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes yes Matteson 1965:94
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Gender distinguished in verbal person markers For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent yes Wise 1986:588
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: indirect object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently yes indirective' morpheme on noun Matteson 1965:44
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: double object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: secondary object In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal. no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reflexive: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive. yes Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Passive Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted yes Matteson 1965:80
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Antipassive Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Other intransitivizing morphology There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: benefactive Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: other Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: prefix Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb no Matteson 1965:78
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: suffix Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb yes Matteson 1965:78
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: serial verb or analytical construction Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy' Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.' yes Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated sociative Indicates that causer participates in event no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence) There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a preposed element Clausal negator is a preposed element no info no discussion of negation Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a postposed element Clausal negator is a postposed element no info no discussion of negation Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: affix Negatives: affix no info no discussion of negation Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: particle Negatives: particle no info no discussion of negation Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: auxiliary verb Negatives: auxiliary verb no info no discussion of negation Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: double Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas' no info no discussion on negation Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist' no info no discussion on negation Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative expression 'I don't know' Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase no info no discussion on negation Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: interrogative particle Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle yes Matteson 1965:57
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: verb morphology Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology no only by particle Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: word order Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: intonation only Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only no negative particle Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Content questions: word order differs from declaratives Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.) Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: verbal Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position yes can take aspect Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: nominal Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Predication Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all) yes Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head) no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses. no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Predication Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Predication Relativizer is a verbal affix no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Predication Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes) no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions Grammaticalized verbal desiderative Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it) yes Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Other Clause chaining Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause. no info Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked switch-reference system There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined no Matteson 1965
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence no