Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Kaingang

Family: Macro-Jean
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: kgp
Location: -27.77°, -52.44°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information

Data Sources: Cavalcante, Marita Pôrto. 1987. Fonologia e morfologia da língua kaingáng: o dialeto de São Paulo comparado com o do Paran. University of Campinas. Campinas: Univ. Gonçalves, Solange Aparecida. 2011. Tempo, aspecto, e modo em contextos discursivos no Kaingang Sul (Je). UNICAMP, PhD dissertation. Key, Mary Ritchie, drawing on Wieseman 1981. 2007. Kaingang. Intercontinental Dictionary Series, ed. Mary Ritchie Key. http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/ids/. da Silva, Maria Sueli Ribeiro. 2011. A língua Kaingáng da aldeia paulista Icatu: uma descrição funcional. Universidade Estadual Paulista/São José do Rio Preto. Teixeira, José Baltazar. 1988. Contribução para a fonologia do dialeto Kaingáng de Nonoai. University of Campinas. Campinas: Univ. Wiesemann, Ursula, ed. 1981. Dicionário kaingáng-portugues, portugues-kaingáng. 2nd edition. Brasilia, SIL.

Basic Vocabulary (191)

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	General Notes	Source
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	kri	kri; kɨɲmə̃		See Language page
and	y	e	grammar				See Language page
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	mrẽj	mrɛ̃y		See Language page
at	en, a	em, a	location				See Language page
back	espalda	costas	body	pãnĩ	pãnĩ		See Language page
bad	mal	mal	quality	kɔrɛŋ (IDS)	kɔrɛŋ; Φe kɔrɛŋ; kɔriŋrɛŋ		See Language page
belly	barriga	barriga	body	nug	yɛ̃n ne; tɨ̃Φɔr; -nuŋ		See Language page
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location	krɛ̃m; yakrɛ̃m (IDS)	krɛ̃m; yakrɛ̃m; ɛ̃prã		See Language page
big	grande	grande	quality	ehe mag	ehe; ɛhɛ; məŋ; maŋ		See Language page
black	negro	preto	colour	sà	sə; saɨ		See Language page
blood	sangre	sangue	body	kyvènh	kɨwɛɲ		See Language page
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body	rẽr	Φɔm; ΦuŋΦɔm; ΦuŋΦo		See Language page
bone	hueso	osso	body	kuka	kuka		See Language page
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	fe	Φe pãrɔ		See Language page
child	niño, niña	criança	human	gĩr, ũn-sĩ	ŋĩr; ũn-sĩ		See Language page
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment	kanhkã gòg	ŋɔŋ; kaɲkã ŋɔŋ; ŋɔŋŋɔŋ; ŋuŋŋɔŋ		See Language page
cold	frío	frio	quality	kusa	kusa		See Language page
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality	mỹr, vẽnh-vĩ	ki krow		See Language page
day	día	dia	time	kurã	kurã		See Language page
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	kavẽj	kawɛy; kawiŋwɛy; kɨŋwɛy		See Language page
dingo/wolf			fauna				See Language page
dry	seco	seco	quality	tɔŋ; tuŋtɔŋ (IDS)	tɔŋ; tuŋtɔŋ		See Language page
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality	yãtũ; nə (IDS)	yãtũ; nə		See Language page
dust	polvo	poeira	environment	ga funfur (ga=soil; funfur=dust)	ΦunΦur; Φun-Φun		See Language page
ear	oreja	orelha	body	nĩgrẽg	-nĩŋrɛ̃ŋ		See Language page
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	ga	ŋa; ɛ̃prã		See Language page
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	o, ov (Portuguese loan?)	-krɛ̃; o; ow; ŋarĩɲ krɛ̃		See Language page
eye	ojo	olho	body	kanẽ	#NAME?		See Language page
far	lejos	longe	quality	kòr gy, kor hà	kɔrɔŋɨ; kuwar; kɔr		See Language page
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	ràm	rəm; -tãŋ		See Language page
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	panh	-yɔŋ; paɲ		See Language page
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	fẽr	#NAME?		See Language page
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	pĩ	pĩ		See Language page
flower	flor	flor	environment	fej	#NAME?		See Language page
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment	krũj	krũy		See Language page
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	ka kanẽ	-kanɛ̃; ka kanɛ̃		See Language page
good	bueno	bom	quality	hã, fe mãg	hə; Φe məŋ; wĩ hə; hapɛ̃		See Language page
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	gãnh	-ŋãɲ		See Language page
hand	mano	mão	body	nĩgà	nĩŋɛ		See Language page
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	ti, -n	ti; Φi		See Language page
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	krĩ	-krĩ		See Language page
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	kufy	kuΦɨ		See Language page
how?	como	como	grammar	ri	ri; hɛ̃ri ke		See Language page
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	inh	ʔiɲ	For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms	See Language page
if	si	se	grammar	kỹ	kə̃		See Language page
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	ki, kã	ki; kã; kãkã; kãki; kãtə		See Language page
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	nug	-kãtə; nuŋ		See Language page
lake	lago	lago	environment	ʔɔrɛ niŋ (IDS)	ʔɔrɛ niŋ		See Language page
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	fèj	#NAME?		See Language page
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	jakãnh	-yakãɲ		See Language page
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	fa	#NAME?		See Language page
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	mrãrn ke (IDS)	mrãrn ke		See Language page
liver	hígado	figado	body	tỹmẽ	-tə̃mɛ̃; tɨ̃mɛ̃		See Language page
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	krẽgfa, tèj	tɛy; krɛ̃ŋΦa		See Language page
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	ga	ŋa	order Phtiraptera	See Language page
man/male	hombre	homem	human	ũn-grè	ũn-ŋre; ŋrɛ		See Language page
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	nĩ	-nĩ		See Language page
moon	luna	lua	environment	kysã	kɨṣ̌ã; kɨsã		See Language page
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	nỹ, jỹ	-nə̃; yə̃; mə̃ɲ		See Language page
mouth	boca	boca	body	jẽnky	-yɛ̃nkɨ		See Language page
name	nombre	nome	human	jiji	yiyi; yɨyɨ		See Language page
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	kakò, rã	kakɔ; rã		See Language page
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body	jagpãnunh	yaŋpãnuɲ		See Language page
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	nunh	#NAME?		See Language page
new	nuevo	novo	quality	tãg	tãŋ		See Language page
night	noche	noite	time	kuty	kutɨ		See Language page
no/not	no	não	grammar	vò, tũ	wɔ, tũ		See Language page
nose	nariz	nariz	body	nĩjẽ	-nĩyɛ̃		See Language page
old	viejo	velho	quality	si, kòfa	kɔΦa; si; ŋuΦã		See Language page
one	uno	um	number	pir	pir		See Language page
other	otro	outro	grammar	ũ, ũn	ũ, ũn		See Language page
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body	kaga	kaŋãŋ; kaŋa		See Language page
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	fòg (non-indigenous person)	wɛ̃ɲʔũ; saɲ; kaɲŋəŋ		See Language page
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	ta	ta; ta kutɛ̃		See Language page
red	rojo	vermelho	colour	kusũg	kɔsɔŋ; kusũŋ		See Language page
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body	pẽg-ja	#NAME?		See Language page
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	ẽmĩn	ʔɛ̃prɨ sĩ		See Language page
root	raíz	raiz	flora	jãre	-yãre		See Language page
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	kòrèg	kɔrɛŋ; kɔriŋrɛŋ; kunãɲ		See Language page
sand	arena	areia	environment	rỹnhrỹj	rɨ̃ɲrɨ̃y; rĩɲrĩy		See Language page
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	yã; yukɛn; yãkɛn (IDS)	yã; yukɛn; yãkɛn		See Language page
short	corto	curto	quality	rur	rur		See Language page
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	jẽnĩmanh	yɛ̃nĩmaɲ; yɛ̃nĩmɨ̃ɲ; pɛ̃n mɛŋ		See Language page
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental	mỹ´a	mɨ̃ʔa; kawɛy		See Language page
skin	piel	pele	body	fàr	#NAME?		See Language page
sky	cielo	céu	environment	kanhkã	kaɲkã		See Language page
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	sĩ, kãsir	sĩ; kãsir; mi; kɔnɛ̃ŋ; kuniŋ		See Language page
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	nĩja	nĩya; nĩya-ŋ; tũm tũm ke		See Language page
star	estrella	estrela	environment	krĩg	krĩŋ		See Language page
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	ka	ka		See Language page
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	pò	pɔ		See Language page
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	my	-mɨ		See Language page
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar				See Language page
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	ag	ʔaŋ; Φaŋ		See Language page
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	jãjèv	yãyɛw; kãŋnĩ		See Language page
thin	delgado	fino	quality	gỹnh	kɨyo		See Language page
this	este/esta	este	grammar	tag	tag		See Language page
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	ã	ʔã		See Language page
throat	garganta	garganta	body	tỹvãn	tɨ̃wãn		See Language page
three	tres	tres	number	tãgtũ	tãŋtũ; tãŋtũŋ		See Language page
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	ta tỹ tỹrỹr he	ta tə̃ tə̃rə̃r hɛ; kɔhun		See Language page
bite	morder	morder	body	para, kypra	pra; kɨpra		See Language page
blow	soplar	soprar	body	jãkà	kãkan; yãkə; kãkə; Φu ke; hu he		See Language page
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	hãn hãn ke (onomatopoeia?), jẽnger	yɛ̃nŋɛr		See Language page
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	pũn, kuprũn	pũr		See Language page
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body	kajẽ	kayɛ̃		See Language page
climb	subir	subir	motion	tãpry, jãpry	tãprɨ; yãprɨ; yãŋprɨ; kuΦĩn		See Language page
come	venir	vir	motion	kãtĩ, kãmũ	kãtĩŋ; kãtĩ; kãmũ		See Language page
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	ẽgnènh	ɛ̃ŋnɛɲ		See Language page
count	contar	contar	mental	tò, vẽmèn	nĩkrɛn		See Language page
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	fỹ, kygfỹ	Φɨ̃; kɨŋΦɨ̃; wɛ̃krɛ̃n		See Language page
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	kym, kykym	kɨm; kɨkɨm		See Language page
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	ter	tɛr; hun ke; tũŋ		See Language page
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	kũm, kũmkũm	kũkũm; kũm; kũm-kũm		See Language page
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	jãti, jãgti	yãti; yãŋti; peti; piŋti		See Language page
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	kron	oŋ; oŋʔoŋ; kron; kron-kron		See Language page
eat	comer	comer	body	jẽn, ko	yɛ̃n; ko		See Language page
fall	caer	cair	motion	kutẽ, vom	kutɛ̃		See Language page
fear	miedo	medo	mental	mũmẽg, kamẽg	mũmɛ̃ŋ; kãʔu; kamɛ̃ŋ		See Language page
flow	fluir	fluir	motion	yɨyɨɲ he (IDS)	yɨyɨɲ he		See Language page
fly	volar	voar	motion	tẽ, tẽv	tɛ̃; tɛ̃w; tɛ̃ŋtɛ̃; tɛ̃ŋtɛ̃w		See Language page
grow	crecer	crescer	state	mog	moŋ		See Language page
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	mẽ, mẽgmẽ	mɛ̃ŋ; mɛ̃; mɛ̃ŋmɛ̃		See Language page
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	pèju, pigju	kãtɔn; puŋnɔn; peyu		See Language page
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	jẽtẽn, jẽgtẽn	mrãn-mrãn; nə e; kã nə e		See Language page
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	kãgmĩ, kugmĩ	mãn		See Language page
kill	matar	matar	impact	tũg, tèn	tɛn; kãŋtɛn		See Language page
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	kanhrãn	kaɲrɔ; ki kaɲrɔ		See Language page
laugh	reír	rir	mental	ny	nɨŋ		See Language page
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	fi, vin	nã; nə̃; Φi		See Language page
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body	rĩr, nĩ	rĩr; Φɛ mrir		See Language page
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	nor, nognor	nor; noŋnor; row; roŋrow		See Language page
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	mrãn-mrãn; nə e; kã nə e (IDS)	pɔ he; pɔke		See Language page
say	decir	dizer	mental	tò, he, ke	tɔ; he; ke		See Language page
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact	jarn ke	yaɾn ke		See Language page
see	ver	ver	mental	ve, vigve	we; wiŋwe		See Language page
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	pẽg, pènũ	pɛ̃ŋ; pɛnũ; pin		See Language page
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	nĩ, nĩgnĩ	nĩ; nĩŋnĩ		See Language page
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	nũr, nũgnũr	nũr; nũn; nũŋnũr		See Language page
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	kã´ĩ	kãʔĩ; mɛ̃ŋ; mɛ̃ŋ-mɛ̃ŋ	primarily transitive	See Language page
spit	escupir	cuspir	body	sug	yãra; suŋ		See Language page
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	ryg, rygryg	rɨŋ; rɔm; ruŋrɔm		See Language page
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	sẽgmĩ	yɛ̃ŋmĩ; yɛ̃ŋũ		See Language page
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact	kusòn	nɔn; kusɔn		See Language page
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	yɛ̃; yɛ̃ŋyɛ̃ (IDS)	yɛ̃; yɛ̃ŋyɛ̃		See Language page
steal	robar	roubar	other	pigju, pèju	pɛyu; piŋyu		See Language page
suck	chupar	chupar	body	ũnh ũnh he (onomatopoeia?)	ʔũɲ-ʔũɲ he; ũɲ ũɲ hɛ; kãhun		See Language page
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	fun ke	kãɲpar; kãɲpɨnpar		See Language page
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	tũgnũm	mro; tũŋnũm		See Language page
think	pensar	pensar	mental	ẽkrèn	yɨkrɛn; ɛ̃kren		See Language page
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	pẽg	Φɔn; wãm; wãwãm		See Language page
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	tògfĩn	kaŋye		See Language page
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other	jakajẽn	wə̃n ke; wĩrn ke; yɨ rã; yɨ ŋĩn	may be transitive or intransitive	See Language page
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	è e	tũŋtũw; ɛ e		See Language page
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	tĩ, mũ	tĩ; mũ; pasa; pɨŋsa		See Language page
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	rãnhrãj	rãɲrãy		See Language page
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body	ããg he	ããŋ hɛ		See Language page
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	nũnẽ, vĩ	nũnɛ̃		See Language page
tooth	diente	dente	body	jã	-yã		See Language page
two	dos	dois	number	règre	rɛŋre		See Language page
water	agua	agua	environment	goj	ŋoy		See Language page
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	ẽg	ẽg	no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted	See Language page
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar				See Language page
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	mrèr, pãgpẽ	mrɛr; mrãn; pãŋpɛ̃		See Language page
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	ne, hẽ ri ke kã	nenɛ̃; hɛ̃ ri ke kã; ne		See Language page
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	kə̃ (IDS)	kə̃		See Language page
where?	donde	onde	grammar	hè-tà	tə; hɨ̃n; hɛ̃-tə		See Language page
white	blanco	branco	colour	kupri	kupri		See Language page
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	ũ	ũ; ʔũ-nɛ̃		See Language page
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	kofa-fi, prũ-fi	-prũ; prũ-Φi; koΦa-Φi		See Language page
wind	viento	vento	environment	kãka	kãka; kɔho		See Language page
wing	ala	asa	body	fẽr	#NAME?		See Language page
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	ũ-tỹtà	Φi; ũ-tə̃tə; ũ-tətə; ũ-tãtə		See Language page
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	[mãrɛru] (loan) (IDS)	[mãrɛru]		See Language page
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	ãjag	ʔãyaŋ		See Language page
foot	pie	pé	body	pẽn	#NAME?		See Language page
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar	mãn (IDS)	mãn		See Language page
all	todo	todos	other	kar, kankar	kar; kankar		See Language page
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body	pẽn nàn (pẽn=pé; nàn=nó de osso)	pɛ̃n nən		See Language page
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body	yɛ̃rɛ̃ (IDS)	yɛ̃rɛ̃		See Language page
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body	jãfa, jãgfa	yãΦa; yãŋΦa		See Language page
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	fe kãnhvy, jẽngèj	Φɛ kãɲwɨ; yɛ̃nŋey		See Language page
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body	kãrã	kãrã-n		See Language page
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body	krykry, kugmre	krɨkrɨ		See Language page
bark	corteza	casca	environment	fàr	#NAME?		See Language page
fingernail	uña	unha	body	nĩggru	nĩŋŋru		See Language page
heart	corazón	coração	body	fe ror (fe=chest; ror=?)	-Φe; Φɛ ror		See Language page
sun	sol	sol	time	rã, rãrĩr	rã; rãrĩr; rɛ̃rĩr		See Language page
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	pãnònh	krĩ; pãnɔɲ; sɔr		See Language page
green	verde	verde	quality	tành	təɲ		See Language page
hot	caliente	quente	quality	rỹ	rɨ̃; rɨ̃-yɨ̃ŋɨ		See Language page

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Source	Distribution	General Notes
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus	kãwru (Pt loan) (IDS)	kãwru (Pt loan) (IDS)	See Language page
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.	krygfèj	krɨŋΦɛy	See Language page
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		jẽsĩ	sɛ̃sĩ	See Language page
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.			See Language page	Amazonia
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.	grũ	gɾũ	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans			See Language page	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.			See Language page	Different types have different localized ranges
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	kòkoj	kɔkox	See Language page	Widespread
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes	kãkò, tò	Φəŋ-pɛ̃-krə̃ŋrə̃ŋ	See Language page	Widespread
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.	kã´èg	kãʔɛg	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica	jògjò, kãto	yɔŋyɔ; kãto	See Language page	Widespread
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae	sòrag	sɔrãŋ; ton	See Language page
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae	hũg, tògfĩn	hũŋ; tɔŋΦĩn	See Language page
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae	jãtã	yãtã; mĩŋ Φɛ̃r; yɔŋɔŋ (?)	See Language page	Widespread South America
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family	pègmèg	pɛ̃n tãper; kuɲhɛ̃ŋ; kuɲhãŋ	See Language page
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba			See Language page	Widespread South America
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae	sãkrĩgò	sãkɾĩgò	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	hoghog	hoŋhoŋ	See Language page	Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)	jòti	yɔti	See Language page	Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	hinh	xidnx	See Language page	Widespread in Amazonia
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	hãpã (IDS)	hãpã (IDS)	See Language page	Throughout Amazonia	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus			See Language page
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		pirã	pirã	See Language page
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.			See Language page
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	pèpo	pɛpo	See Language page
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.			See Language page		iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata	ŋãŋŋre; yãŋŋre 'lizard' (IDS)	ŋãŋŋre; yãŋŋre	See Language page
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.			See Language page
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura	jògè	yɔgɛ	See Language page
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae			See Language page
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		pỹn	pə̃n	See Language page
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox	pỹn pẽ	pɨ̃n pẽ	See Language page	Widespread South America
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	pènĩ	pɛnĩ	See Language page	Widespread
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis			See Language page	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)	kamrĩ	kayɛ̃r kasakɨ	See Language page		prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba			See Language page	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.			See Language page	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa	jàjà	yəyə	See Language page	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	trunks contain sago-like starch
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana			See Language page	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	palm
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes			See Language page
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua			See Language page	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia	may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	plant
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra			See Language page	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	tree
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	plant
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea			See Language page		plant
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus			See Language page		plant
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum			See Language page	tropical regions, especially river banks	plant
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.			See Language page		Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.	rãgrò	rãŋrɔ	See Language page		plant
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)	ròrò	rɔrɔ; re	See Language page
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	gãr	ŋãr	See Language page	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	plant
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum	Φũmu (Pt loan) (IDS)	Φũmu	See Language page		plant
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		ka	ka	See Language page
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	shrub
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.			See Language page	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala			See Language page	secondary forests, native to Brazil	tree
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']			See Language page	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	tree
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana			See Language page	widespread lowland SA	shrub
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura			See Language page		large tree
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	tree
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui			See Language page	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia			See Language page	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	a tree; not a true grape
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta		[mə̃nyɔka]	See Language page	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta			See Language page	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum	nin; pɛnʔɔ (IDS)	ndidn; pɛnʔɔ (IDS)	See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	nin; pɛnʔɔ (IDS)	[matata]; nin; pɛnʔɔ	See Language page		plant
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	plant
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.			See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	run-ja	run-ya	See Language page	indigenous gardens	plant; tree
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.	peho	pɛho; pɛhu	See Language page		plant
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.	mrũr	mɾũɾ	See Language page	secondary forest, floodplain	vine
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.			See Language page	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	shrub/tree
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi			See Language page	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	vine
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola			See Language page
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic	ka (IDS)	ka (IDS)	See Language page
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae	pɛnkriŋ (IDS)	pɛnkriŋ	See Language page
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata			See Language page
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.			See Language page
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	mỹg	mə̃ŋ	See Language page
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria	kruj	kruy	See Language page
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae	nèr-jẽnje	nɛɾ-yẽnye	See Language page
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	toto	toto	See Language page
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera			See Language page
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	jònjòn	ŋa; nuŋ ŋa; yɔnyɔn	See Language page
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda	pə̃n kakrã (IDS)	pə̃n kakrã	See Language page
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones	pỹn kakrã màg (pỹn=snake; kakrã=?; màg=big)	pə̃n kakrã məŋ	See Language page
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea	gangavo, katir	gadngawo, katiɾ	See Language page
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	kãpò	kãpɔ	See Language page
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	ka tành (ka=mosquito; tành=to kill)	ka təɲ	See Language page
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae	firèg	fiɾɛg	See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.	jòkynh	yɔkɨdnx	See Language page
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae	jòka, jòkaka	yɔka, yɔkaka	See Language page
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	ka	ka; ka riŋri	See Language page
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera	ryg	ɾɨg	See Language page
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea	tir	tiɾ	See Language page
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita	Φɛ̃ŋnu; kɔŋΦo (IDS)	Φɛ̃ŋnu; kɔŋΦo	See Language page
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda			See Language page
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae	sukrĩg	sukrĩŋ	See Language page
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	mĩg	mĩg	See Language page
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.			See Language page
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha	kajẽr	kayẽɾ	See Language page
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]			See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella	kajẽr, pẽgũ	kayẽɾ, pẽgũ	See Language page
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons			See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus			See Language page
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae	nɛr-kɔkrɛ; ɲɔr-kɔkrɛ (IDS)	nɛr-kɔkrɛ; ɲɔr-kɔkrɛ	See Language page
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis	grer	gɾeɾ	See Language page
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis	fògfènh	fɔgfɛnx	See Language page
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu			See Language page
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari			See Language page
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae			See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua	se	se	See Language page
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	kysòg	kɨsɔg	See Language page
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris	krãgnãn	kɾãgnãn	See Language page
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti			See Language page
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)	ko kamẽ (ko=to eat; kamẽ=?), kryrỹ	ko kamẽ (ko=to eat; kamẽ=?), kryrỹ	See Language page
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus	kasĩn (IDS)	kasĩn	See Language page
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae	jòtiti	yɔtiti	See Language page
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	òjor	ɔyoɾ	See Language page
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	kãme	kãme	See Language page

Cultural Vocabulary (97)

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	General Notes	Source
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	kẽj	kɛ̃y; kãŋtɨ		See Language page
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material				See Language page
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material				See Language page
bed	cama	cama	culture-material	pri	wɛ̃ɲ-nĩŋŋrɛ		See Language page
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	tẽ-ja	tẽ-ya		See Language page
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	nĩgja	nĩŋya		See Language page
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	kãkènh, kãnva	kãkɛɲ; kãnwa		See Language page
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture			Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology	tũgnũg	tũŋnũŋ		See Language page
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology	kujà	kuyə	In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology			Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material	fỹgfỹ-jafã	Φɨ̃ŋΦɨ̃ŋ-yaΦã		See Language page
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	kur	kur		See Language page
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other	rò	rɔ	may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page
firewood	leña	lenha	other	pĩ	pĩ		See Language page
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology			malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	kãnhmèg	nɛn-nɛ̃ we		See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology	topẽ	topɛ̃; ɛ̃ŋ-yɔŋ məŋ	In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology	hotore (IDS)	hotore	multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology				See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics				See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology				See Language page
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	kyfè, rògro	kɨΦɛ; rɔŋro		See Language page
machete	machete	facão	culture-material				See Language page
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	mèg	mɛŋ	especially for clearing fields	See Language page
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	no	no; na	hunting, warfare	See Language page
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	rògro	rɔŋro		See Language page
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	vyj	wɨy	arco	See Language page
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	kãkɛɲ wɔŋ yãΦa (IDS)	kãkɛɲ wɔŋ yãΦa		See Language page
plate	plato	prato	culture-material				See Language page
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	kukrũ	kukrũ		See Language page
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material	pènky	pɛnkɨ; kukrũ		See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool			agriculture?	See Language page
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology	sy	sɨ; kriŋŋriŋ		See Language page
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool	jẽnjo	yẽnyo		See Language page
wax	cera	cera	other	neɲ (beeswax; IDS)	neɲ		See Language page
honey	miel	mel	food	mỹg	mɨ̃ŋ	only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material				See Language page
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	vãfe	ṣ̌eya; wãΦe		See Language page
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology				See Language page
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material	ẽkrè fòr	ẽkɾɛ fɔɾ		See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology			a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology				See Language page
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology	rãgre	rãgɾe		See Language page
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology				See Language page
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology		kaɲkã		See Language page
school	escuela	escola	acculturation	iɲkɔra; wɛ̃ɲ-kaɲrãn-yãΦã (IDS)	iɲkɔra; wɛ̃ɲ-kaɲrãn-yãΦã (IDS)		See Language page
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation				See Language page
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	wɛ̃ɲ-rə (IDS)	wɛ̃ɲ-rə		See Language page
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	yãti; yãŋti; peti; piŋti (IDS)	yãti; yãŋti; peti; piŋti		See Language page
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	ŋarĩɲ (loan galinha?) (IDS)	[ŋarĩɲ] krɛ̃		See Language page
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology	wɛ̃ɲ-key; key (IDS)	wɛ̃ɲ-key; key		See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other				See Language page
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	ŋrɛ̃ 'sugar' (IDS)	ŋrɛ̃ 'sugar' (IDS)		See Language page
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material	wɛ̃ɲ-pɛ̃Φĩ (IDS)	wɛ̃ɲ-pɛ̃Φĩ		See Language page
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress	pɛ̃n nɛ; pɛ̃n to rɔ (IDS)	pɛ̃n nɛ; pɛ̃n to rɔ		See Language page
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation				See Language page
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation				See Language page
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	mĩŋ sĩ (loan, IDS)	mĩŋ sĩ		See Language page
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	no puŋ; no tɛy (IDS)	no puŋ; no tɛy		See Language page
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	sãpe (loan Pt) (IDS)	sãpe		See Language page
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	pãʔi; pãʔe (loan Tupi?) (IDS)	pãʔi; pãʔe		See Language page
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool	ka kɨw; ka mrãr (IDS)	ka kɨw; ka mrãr		See Language page
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress				See Language page
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other				See Language page
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool				See Language page
salt	sal	sal	food	sa (loan Pt?) (IDS)	sa		See Language page
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology	tə̃ɲ; tɨ̃ɲ; tɨ̃ŋtɨ̃ɲ; yãr (vb., IDS)	tə̃ɲ; tɨ̃ɲ; tɨ̃ŋtɨ̃ɲ; yãr		See Language page
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool			currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool	rògro	ɾɔgɾo	hunting and warfare	See Language page
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool	yɛ̃nwɛn-yaΦã (IDS)	yɛ̃nwɛn-yaΦã	esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	vim ke (vim=?; que=to do)	wibm ke		See Language page
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food				See Language page
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	ẽkrènh	se; ʔɛ̃kreɲ		See Language page
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food	se	wɛ̃ɲ-mɛ̃ŋ	Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	run-ja	ɾun-ya		See Language page
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool			esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool		kri-win-ya		See Language page
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool	krèj	krɛy		See Language page
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool	kra	kra		See Language page
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture	kɨΦɛ 'mead/beer' (IDS)	kɨΦɛ 'mead/beer' (IDS)	prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food	mẽn-hu, jònhky	[Φarĩɲ]	agriculture	See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food	yamĩ; ɛ̃mĩ; pũ 'bread' (IDS)	yamĩ; ɛ̃mĩ; pũ 'bread' (IDS)	usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food				See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food			agriculture	See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food			word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool			agriculture	See Language page
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool			hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	gren	gɾedn	agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool	ɛ̃ŋΦi-to-sa-yaΦã (IDS)	ɛ̃ŋΦi-to-sa-yaΦã (IDS)	can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool	pãri (loan TG?)	pãri		See Language page
bottom grinding stone			manufacture	pè	pɛ	if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool				See Language page
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture			use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool				See Language page
spearthrower			subsistence tool				See Language page
house			other	ĩn	ʔĩn; wɛ̃ɲ-nĩŋ-ya		See Language page

Grammatical Data (226)

Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	yes		Texeira 1988:4
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Texeira 1988:4
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no		Texeira 1988:4
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	no		Texeira 1988:26
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Texeira 1988:26
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	yes		Cavalcante 1987:31
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	no		Cavalcante 1987:31
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no	many examples of open syllables	Cavalcante 1987:31
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no		Cavalcante 1987
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no info
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no		Cavalcante 1987
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no info
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no		Cavalcante 1987
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no		Silva 2011
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Silva 2011
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	no	TAM marked by particles	Silva 2011:104
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Silva 2011
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	no		Silva 2011
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Silva 2011
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	yes	reduplicated verbs for plurality	Cavalcante 1987:58-65
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	yes	reduplicated verbs for plurality	Cavalcante 1987:58-65
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	no info		Silva 2011
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no info		Silva 2011
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	no info		Silva 2011
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no info		Silva 2011
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes	for mood	Silva 2011:104
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	no	not likely since verb does not have many morphemes	Silva 2011
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no info	not likely	Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	no		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	no		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	no		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	yes		Silva 2011:147
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes	taken from examples… author does not discuss this topic	Silva 2011:62
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no		Silva 2011:146
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	yes	no discussion but author glosses /ti/ as a definite masculine article	Silva 2011:142
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	yes	borrowing?	Silva 2011:180
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	no		Silva 2011:146
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no	no person inflection	Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	0	proximal - distal	Goncalves 2011:289
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no		Goncalves 2011
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		yes		Goncalves 2011:12
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		yes		Goncalves 2011:12
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Goncalves 2011:12
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no info		Goncalves 2011:12
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	no		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no	no prefixes in the language	Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no	no tones	Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no	two different pospositions	Goncalves 2011:292
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no info		Goncalves 2011:294
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	no info		Goncalves 2011:294
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no info		Goncalves 2011:294
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no info		Goncalves 2011:294
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no info		Goncalves 2011:294
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no info		Goncalves 2011:294
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no info		Goncalves 2011:294
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no info		Silva 2011
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Goncalves 2011:12
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Goncalves 2011:12
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no	classification seems very unlikely	Silva 2011
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no info		Goncalves 2011:12
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	yes		Goncalves 2011:294
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	no	not likely, since nouns do not mark gender	Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	yes		Goncalves 2011:40
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no info		Silva 2011
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	yes		Goncalves 2011:35
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no info		Silva 2011
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no	author only describes one future	Goncalves 2011:73
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		yes		Goncalves 2011:73
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no	no tones	Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no	/ra/ seems to have several functions, which includes imperative	Goncalves 2011:82
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no		Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no		Silva 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		yes	particle	Goncalves 2011:156
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no info		Silva 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	no	not likely	Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	yes		Goncalves 2011:118-127
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no	/ra/ seems to have several functions, which may include realis/irrealis	Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no info		Silva 2011
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	yes		Goncalves 2011:16
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no info		Silva 2011
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no	not likely from examples	Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no	SOV basic order	Goncalves 2011:14
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	no		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Goncalves 2011:292
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Demonstrative-Noun		no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Noun-Demonstrative		no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Num-Noun		no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Noun-Num		no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	no		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	yes		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no info	not likely according to examples	Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no info	not likely according to examples	Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		no	all the pronouns remain the same	Goncalves 2011:12
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no		Goncalves 2011:12
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Goncalves 2011:12
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Goncalves 2011:12
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Goncalves 2011:12
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	no	no person inflection	Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes	pronoun seems to occupy subject position in examples	Goncalves 2011:34
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no	no person inflection	Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no	no person inflection	Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no	no person inflection	Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no	no person inflection	Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	no	no person inflection	Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	no	no person inflection	Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	no	no person inflection	Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no	no person inflection	Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no	no person inflection	Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	no		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	no		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes	particle	Goncalves 2011:290
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	yes	particle	Goncalves 2011:290
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	yes		Goncalves 2011:290
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no info	Authors do not discuss causatives	Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	no		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no info		Silva 2011
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	no info		Silva 2011/Goncalves 2011

Ethnographic Information

Current Population (speakers)	Former Population Estimate	Subsistence Preference	Density	Sedentism	Ecotome	Marriage Pattern	Notes	Source
		MX