Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors

Aguaruna

Family
Chicham (Jivaroan)
Region
South America
ISO 639-3
agr
Location
-5.30°, -77.92°
Notes
Features
Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Data Sources
Overall, Simon. 2007. A grammar of Aguaruna. PhD Dissertation, La Trobe University, Bundoora. Wipio, Gerardo (recop.). 1996. Diccionario aguaruna-castellano, castellano-aguaruna.ILV, Lima.


Basic Vocabulary (191)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes General Notes Source
above encima, arriba acima location awántak, tuntupén awantak, tuntupɨn unique See Language page
and y e grammar See Language page
ash ceniza(s) cinzas environment yugkúnip jungkunip inheritance See Language page
at en, a em, a location See Language page
back espalda costas body tuntúp tuntup inheritance See Language page
bad mal mal quality pégkechau, yájau pɨngkɨtʃau, jáxau inheritance See Language page
belly barriga barriga body tan'tan (IDS) tan'tan inheritance See Language page
below abajo, debajo abaixo location ajáuu axau: unique See Language page
big grande grande quality múun mú:n inheritance See Language page
black negro preto colour bukúsea bukúsɨa inheritance See Language page
blood sangre sangue body númpa númpa inheritance cf. Cofan See Language page
boil/pimple espinilla, granos espinha, borbulha body pántsum pantsum unique See Language page
bone hueso osso body ukúnchi ukúntʃi inheritance See Language page
breast pecho, seno peito body detsép, múntsu dɨtsɨp, múntsu inheritance See Language page
child niño, niña criança human úchi/náwa útʃi/náwa inheritance See Language page
cloud nube nuvem environment yujagkím juxangkim inheritance See Language page
cold frío frio quality bichámchatu bitʃámtʃatu inheritance See Language page
correct/true verdad, de veras verdade quality dekás dɨkas inheritance See Language page
day día dia time tsawán tsawán inheritance See Language page
dirty sucio sujo quality tsuwát, wapík tsuwat, wapik unique; inheritance See Language page
dingo/wolf fauna dúbu (Spanish loan) dubu See Language page
dry seco seco quality búku búku unique See Language page
dull/blunt sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo maçante, desamolado, não afiado quality suyujú sujuxu See Language page
dust polvo poeira environment tsétse tsɨtsɨ See Language page
ear oreja orelha body kuwísh kuwíʃ doubtful loan, direction unknown Candoshi See Language page
earth/soil tierra terra environment núgka núngka inheritance See Language page
egg huevo ovo fauna nujín nuxín inheritance See Language page
eye ojo olho body jíi xí: inheritance See Language page
far lejos longe quality atúshat, dúkap, aján atuʃat, dukap, axan unique See Language page
fat/grease grasa gordura body kuntúk kuntúk inheritance See Language page
father padre, papá pai kinship ápa ápa inheritance See Language page
feather pluma pena fauna úje úxɨ inheritance See Language page
fire fuego fogo environment jíi xí: inheritance See Language page
flower flor flor environment yagkúg jangkung inheritance See Language page
fog niebla, neblina nevoeira, bruma, neblina environment yuhagkim uc̷anhau juhagkim utsanhau See Language page
fruit fruta fruta flora jigkái, néje xingkai, nɨxɨ unique; inheritance See Language page
good bueno bom quality pégkeg pɨngkɨng inheritance See Language page
hair (of head) cabello cabelo body intásh intáʃ inheritance See Language page
hand mano mão body uwéj uwɨx inheritance See Language page
3sg el/ella ele/ela grammar áu áu inheritance See Language page
head cabeza cabeça body buúk bu:k inheritance See Language page
heavy pesado pesado quality kakaúchu kakautʃu unique See Language page
how? como como grammar wajúk waxuk unique See Language page
1sg yo eu grammar wi wi inheritance For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms See Language page
if si se grammar ehé ɨʔɨ See Language page
in/inside dentro, adentro dentro location ínitak initak inheritance See Language page
intestines intestinos intestinos body ámpug ampung inheritance See Language page
lake lago lago environment kuča (Quechua cocha) kutʃa loan (into protolanguage?) Quechua See Language page
leaf hoja folha environment dúka dúka inheritance See Language page
left/left hand izquierdo esquerdo location/body ména mɨna inheritance See Language page
leg/foot pierna perna body kagkág kangkang unique See Language page
lightning rayo, relámpago relampago environment péem pɨ:m inheritance See Language page
liver hígado figado body akáp akáp inheritance See Language page
long largo comprido, longo quality esájam ɨsaxam doubtful loan (into protolanguage?) Jivaroan See Language page
louse piollo, piojo piolho fauna téma tɨma inheritance order Phtiraptera See Language page
man/male hombre homem human áishmag áiʃmang inheritance See Language page
meat/flesh carne carne fauna néje nɨxɨ unique See Language page
moon luna lua environment nántu nántu inheritance See Language page
mother madre, mamá mãe kinship dúku dúku inheritance See Language page
mouth boca boca body wénu wɨnu inheritance See Language page
name nombre nome human da, na da, na inheritance See Language page
near/close cerca de perto quality ijús ixus inheritance See Language page
nape base del cuello, nuca nuca body kuntujé kuntuxɨ See Language page
neck cuello pescoço body kuntug, súwe kuntung, suwɨ inheritance See Language page
new nuevo novo quality yamájan jamáxam inheritance See Language page
night noche noite time káshi káʃi inheritance See Language page
no/not no não grammar atsá atsa doubtful loan, direction unknown Boran See Language page
nose nariz nariz body dúji, níji dúxi, níxi inheritance See Language page
old viejo velho quality múuntuch mú:ntutʃ unique See Language page
one uno um number bakichik bakitʃik inheritance See Language page
other otro outro grammar tíkich tikitʃ inheritance See Language page
pain/painful/sick dolor, doloroso, enfermo dor, doloroso, doente body jáu xau unique See Language page
person/human being persona pessoa human aénts aɨnts inheritance See Language page
rain lluvia chuva environment pujánti, yúmi puxanti, jumi unique; inheritance See Language page
red rojo vermelho colour kapántu kapántu inheritance See Language page
right/right hand derecha direita location/body tutúpit tutupit unique See Language page
road/path camino caminho manufacture jínta xínta inheritance See Language page
root raíz raiz flora kagkáp kangkáp inheritance See Language page
rotten podrido podre quality kaujú, mámush kauxu, mamuʃ inheritance; unique See Language page
sand arena areia environment kámatak kámatak unique See Language page
sharp afilado, filudo, filoso afiado quality úyuk ujuk unique See Language page
short corto curto quality báchik, sútag batʃik, sutang unique; inheritance See Language page
shoulder hombro ombro body yakái jakai inheritance See Language page
shy/ashamed tímido, vergonzoso timido, com vergonha mental sápig, datsámin saping, datsamin inheritance; inheritance See Language page
skin piel pele body duwáp duwáp inheritance See Language page
sky cielo céu environment nayaím najaim inheritance See Language page
small pequeño pequeno quality manchúuch mantʃú:tʃ unique See Language page
smoke humo fumaça environment bukunát bukunát inheritance See Language page
star estrella estrela environment yáya jája inheritance See Language page
stick/wood palo pau, vara flora númi numi inheritance See Language page
stone piedra pedra environment káya kája inheritance See Language page
tail cola, rabo rabo body ujúk uxúk inheritance See Language page
that ese/esa esse grammar anú anú inheritance See Language page
3pl ellos/ellas eles/elas grammar dita dita inheritance See Language page
thick grueso, gordo, espeso grosso quality bikámkatu bikamkatu inheritance See Language page
thin delgado fino quality chíchap tʃitʃap unique See Language page
this este/esta este grammar juu xu: inheritance See Language page
2sg xx xx grammar áme ámɨ inheritance See Language page
throat garganta garganta body jayák xajak unique See Language page
three tres tres number kampátum kampátum inheritance See Language page
thunder truenos trovão environment ipamát ipamat inheritance See Language page
bite morder morder body esát ɨsat inheritance See Language page
blow soplar soprar body umpúut umpu:t inheritance See Language page
breathe respirar respirar body mayatút majatut inheritance See Language page
burn quemar queimar environment aéset, ekémat, apét aɨsɨt, ɨkɨmat, apɨt unknown; inheritance See Language page
chew masticar, mascar mastigar body daút, kajít daut, kaxit unique; unique See Language page
climb subir subir motion wát wat inheritance? See Language page
come venir vir motion minít, táat minit, ta:t unknown See Language page
cook cocinar cozinhar impact inajút inaxut inheritance See Language page
count contar contar mental dekápat dɨkapat inheritance See Language page
cry llorar chorar mental búutut bu:tut unique See Language page
cut/hack cortar cortar impact tsúpit, kúwaut tsupit, kuwaut loan (into protolanguage?), direction unknown Candoshi See Language page
die/be dead morir morrer state besét bɨsɨt unique See Language page
dig cavar cavar impact taúmat taumat inheritance See Language page
dream soñar sonhar mental kajamát kaxamat inheritance See Language page
drink beber, tomar beber body úmut úmut inheritance See Language page
eat comer comer body yút jút inheritance See Language page
fall caer cair motion iyáut ijaut inheritance See Language page
fear miedo medo mental ishámamu iʃamamu inheritance See Language page
flow fluir fluir motion yumi 'pugkanu (IDS) jumi pugkanu unknown See Language page
fly volar voar motion nanamát nanamát inheritance See Language page
grow crecer crescer state aentsmágat, muúmpat aɨntsmagat, mu:mpat unique; unique See Language page
hear oír ouvir mental ántut ántut inheritance See Language page
hide esconder esconder motion eját ɨxat unique See Language page
hit golpear, pegar bater impact awatút, íjut awatut, ixut inheritance; unknown See Language page
hold correr, asegurar, sostener segurar other ichíchtut itʃitʃtut unique See Language page
kill matar matar impact máut máut inheritance See Language page
know/be knowledgeable saber, conecer saber, conhecer mental dékamu dɨkamu unique See Language page
laugh reír rir mental dushíkagtut duʃikangtut unique See Language page
lie down acostarse, echarse deitar motion tepét tɨpɨt inheritance See Language page
live/be alive vivir viver, morar body pujút puxut inheritance See Language page
open/uncover abrir abrir other dakaekáu. juwáekiu dakaɨkau, xuwaɨkiu unknown; unknown See Language page
pound/beat machacar, golpear bater impact dekéet, initát dɨkɨ:t, initat See Language page
say decir dizer mental tút(a) tút(a) inheritance See Language page
scratch rascar rasgar impact nanchikít nantʃikit inheritance See Language page
see ver ver mental diít di:t unknown See Language page
shoot tirar, disparar, balear atirar impact ípatut ipatut inheritance See Language page
sit sentar(se) sentar state ekémat ɨkɨmat inheritance See Language page
sleep dormir dormir body kánut kánut inheritance See Language page
sniff/smell olfatear, oler cheirar body kugkúut kungku:t unique primarily transitive See Language page
spit escupir cuspir body usukit usukit inheritance See Language page
split partir, dividir rachar, dividir, partir impact dakát, akanát dakat, akanat unique; inheritance See Language page
squeeze estrujar, exprimir espremer impact ijút ixut inheritance See Language page
stab/pierce apuñalar, acuchillar apunhalar impact nawahai 'ihut nawahai 'ihut unknown See Language page
stand estar de pié ficar em pé state tajíit taxi:t unique See Language page
steal robar roubar other kasamát kasamat inheritance See Language page
suck chupar chupar body bukunát bukunat inheritance See Language page
swell hincharse inchar body ímut, íyat, teémtut imut, ijat, tɨ:mtut unknown See Language page
swim nadar nadar motion yukumát jukumát inheritance See Language page
think pensar pensar mental anentaímat anɨntaimat inheritance See Language page
throw tirar, lanzar atirar, jogar impact nagkítukút, tepét nagkitukut, tɨpɨt inheritance, unique See Language page
tie up/fasten atar, amarrar amarrar impact ánaut, jigkát anaut, xingkat unknown; inheritance See Language page
turn girar, volter, torcer virar other papegát papɨgat unique may be transitive or intransitive See Language page
vomit vomitar vomitar body ímut imut inheritance See Language page
walk caminar, andar andar motion wekagát wɨkagát inheritance See Language page
work trabajar trabalhar other takát takat inheritance See Language page
yawn bostezar bocejar body waániimat wa:ni:mat inheritance See Language page
tongue lengua lingua body idái idái inheritance See Language page
tooth diente dente body dái dái inheritance See Language page
two dos dois number jímag ximang inheritance See Language page
water agua agua environment yúmi júmi inheritance See Language page
1pl.incl nosotros (inclusivo) nós (inclusivo) grammar íi i: inheritance no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted See Language page
1pl.excl nosotros (exclusivo) nós (exclusivo) grammar missing See Language page
wet mojado molhado quality chupíchpitu tʃupítʃpitu inheritance See Language page
what? que, qué que grammar wají waxí inheritance See Language page
when? cuando quando grammar wajutí, wajutíya waxuti, waxutija inheritance See Language page
where? donde onde grammar tú tu inheritance See Language page
white blanco branco colour chamíg tʃamíng inheritance See Language page
who? quien, quién quem grammar yaa ja: inheritance See Language page
wife esposa esposa kinship núwe núwɨ inheritance See Language page
wind viento vento environment dáse dasɨ inheritance See Language page
wing ala asa body nánap nanap inheritance See Language page
woman/female mujer mulher human núwa núwa inheritance See Language page
yellow amarillo amarelo colour yagkú jangkú inheritance See Language page
2pl ustedes vocês grammar átum átum inheritance See Language page
foot pie pé body dáwe dáwɨ inheritance See Language page
again de nuevo, otra vez de novo grammar aták, yamá atak, jama inheritance; unknown See Language page
all todo todos other ashí aʃi inheritance See Language page
ankle tobillo tornozelo body wanus wanus inheritance See Language page
armpit axila, sobaco axila body tsuká tsuká doubtful loan Spanish sobaco See Language page
faeces heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol fezes body tsuwát tsuwat unique See Language page
lung pulmón pulmão body súwach suwatʃ doubtful loan (into protolg?), direction unknown Candoshi See Language page
sweat sudar suor, suar body seemát sɨ:mat inheritance? See Language page
itch hormiguear, sentir comezón coçar body tejéet tɨxɨ:t See Language page
bark corteza casca environment saepé saɨpɨ inheritance See Language page
fingernail uña unha body nanchík nantʃík inheritance See Language page
heart corazón coração body anentái anɨntái inheritance See Language page
sun sol sol time étsa ɨtsa inheritance See Language page
mountain/hill montaña, colina, loma, cerro morro, serra environment íkam íkam inheritance See Language page
green verde verde quality samékbau samɨkbau inheritance See Language page
hot caliente quente quality sukutín sukutín unique See Language page


Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Linnean Name Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Etymology Notes Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Range of Term Word Structure Word Structure Notes Classifier Classifier Notes Hypernym Source Association with Social Categories Ritual/Mythologically Significant Ritual Notes Food Source Food Notes Medicinal Medicinal Notes How Collected Who Collects How Prepared Psychotropic Psychotropic Notes Traded Trade Notes Distribution Habitat Dangerous Ethnobiology Notes Species Notes General Notes
bat murciélago morcego flora-fauna Chiroptera spp. jiíncham xi:ntʃam doubtful loan (into protolanguage?), direction unknown Candoshi See Language page
bird pajaro, ave passaro flora-fauna píshak piʃak loan - WW %piʃku, from Quechua See Language page
curassow mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini) mutum flora-fauna Crax sp., Nothocrax sp. báshu báʃu loan (into protolanguage?), direction unknown Candoshi See Language page Amazonia
toucan tucán, pinsha (Peru) tucano flora-fauna Ramphastos sp. piígsha pi:ngʃa loan Quechua (Cuzco?) See Language page Widespread Amazonia
gray-winged trumpeter Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris jacamim flora-fauna Psophia crepitans chíwa tʃíwa inheritance See Language page Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
guan pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru) jacu flora-fauna Penelope sp. aúnts aúnts inheritance See Language page Different types have different localized ranges
tinamou tinamu, perdiz, gallineta inambu, inhambu flora-fauna family Tinamidae wága wága inheritance See Language page Widespread Amazonia
hummingbird colibrí, picaflor (Peru) beija-flor flora-fauna family Trochilidae jémpe xɨmpɨ inheritance See Language page Widespread
kingfisher martín pescador, catalan (Peru) martim-pescador flora-fauna family Alcedinidae cháji tʃáxi doubtful loan Panoan *čaraš (Shell) See Language page Widespread Amazonia
owl (large) búho, lechuza corujão flora-fauna order Strigiformes ampúsh ampúʃ loan, direction unknown Candoshi; compare Matses bus See Language page Widespread
macaw ara, guacamaya Arara flora-fauna family Psittacidae; Ara sp. yúsa, shaámak júsa, ʃa:mak inheritance See Language page Widespread Amazonia
parrot loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib) papagaio flora-fauna Amazona amazonica kawáu kawáu loan, direction unknown - WW? Candoshi kawaaro; see also %awaro See Language page Widespread
dove paloma pomba flora-fauna family Columbidae yámpitsa jámpitsa inheritance See Language page
hawk halcón, gavilán gavião flora-fauna family Accipitridae chikiwí tʃikiwí loan, direction unknown Candoshi See Language page
vulture buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru) urubu flora-fauna family Cathartidae káasip ká:sip unique See Language page Widespread South America
duck pato pato, marreco flora-fauna Anatidae family pátu (Spanish loan) pátu loan Spanish See Language page
great egret Garza Blanca, Guyratî Garça-Branca-Grande flora-fauna Ardea alba untúju, yawakám untúxu, yawakám unique; doubtful loan - WW %wakara See Language page Widespread South America
woodpecker pájaro carpintero, carpintero pica-pau flora-fauna family Picidae sawáke (small type), tátasham sawáke (small type), tátaʃam inheritance See Language page Widespread Amazonia
dog (camp, domestic) perro cachorro flora-fauna Canis famililaris yawá jawá loan (into Protolg?) Tupi-Guarani? See Language page Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog) sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta cachorro-do-mato flora-fauna Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis putúkam putúkam See Language page Widespread Amazonia
anteater oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus tamanduá flora-fauna Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater) wishiíshi wiʃi:ʃi inheritance See Language page Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo) tatu flora-fauna family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri shushúi ʃuʃúi inheritance See Language page Widespread in Amazonia
sloth pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru) macaco preguica flora-fauna Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp. uyúsh ujúʃ See Language page Widespread Amazonia
alligator, black caiman babilla; cachirre jacaré flora-fauna Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp. semágkau sɨmángkau unique See Language page Throughout Amazonia Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
electric eel anguila eléctrica poraquê flora-fauna Electrophorus electricus jagkíya, nampichichiáu xangkíja, nampitʃitʃiáu unique See Language page
fish (generic) pez peixe flora-fauna namák(a) namák(a) inheritance See Language page
pacu fish palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru) pacu flora-fauna Mylossoma sp. paumít (Spanish loan?) paumít See Language page
pirana piraña, caribe piranha flora-fauna subfamily Serrasalmidae páni páni loan (into protolg?), direction unknown Candoshi See Language page Widespread Amazonia
tigerfish taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru) traíra flora-fauna Hoplias sp. kugkúi kugkúi See Language page Widespread Amazonia
mandi catfish maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish) mandi flora-fauna Auchenipterus sp. yutúi, kumpáu, muyúsh 'all 'catfish') jutúi, kumpáu, mujúʃ 'all 'catfish') See Language page Widespread Amazonia
speckled catfish surubí, pintadillo surubim, sorubim flora-fauna Pseudoplatystoma sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
toad sapo sapo flora-fauna order Anura takásh (see also other sp.) takáʃ See Language page
iguana iguana, garipiares (Colombia) camaleão flora-fauna Iguana sp. iwán (loan?) iwán loan - WW %jiwana (from Spanish?) See Language page iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
small lizard lagartija calango flora-fauna order Squamata shampíu ʃampíu inheritance See Language page
stingray (generic) rayas látigo, raya arraia flora-fauna Potamotrygon sp. kaáshap ka:ʃap inheritance See Language page
crab cangrejo caranguejo flora-fauna infraorder Brachyura punúk punúk unique See Language page
anaconda anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande sucuri flora-fauna genus Eunectes págki pángki See Language page Widespread Amazonia
boa boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura jiboia flora-fauna family Boidae, subf. Boinae wapú wapú unknown See Language page
snake (generic) culebra, serpiente cobra flora-fauna dápi dápi inheritance See Language page
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara jararaca flora-fauna Bothrops jararaca/atrox bakánchi bakántʃi See Language page Widespread South America
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant) tortuga, morrocoy, motelo jabutí, tartaruga flora-fauna Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria kugkúim kungkuím inheritance See Language page Widespread
Amazon dolphin bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco) boto cor-de-rosa flora-fauna Inia geoffrensis apuúpu apu:pu inheritance See Language page Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls
mushroom champiñón, hongo cogumelo flora-fauna (any edible generic) kuwísh kuwíʃ unique See Language page prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
black palm bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá bacaba flora-fauna Oenocarpus bacaba missing See Language page Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
açai palm huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia) açaí flora-fauna Euterpe sp. saké sakɨ inheritance See Language page floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
miriti palm moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti buriti flora-fauna Mauritia flexuosa áchu átʃu doubtful loan (into protolg?), direction unknown Candoshi katʃo, Quechua atʃwa See Language page Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps trunks contain sago-like starch
palm for roof thatch pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná caraná flora-fauna Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana See Language page Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests palm
paxiuba palm pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba paxiuba flora-fauna Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea kuún(ta), imáp(a) ku:n(ta), imáp(a) doubtful loan Ocaina tʲoroodʲo, Nukak huruda See Language page Widespread Amazonia palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol) pupunha flora-fauna Bactris gasipaes uyái ujái; takuyám 'sp. of pihuayo without spines' (Wipio p.115) pijuayo inheritance uyaínim 'sp of palm with small, inedible fruit' (Wipio p.135) (Overall 23Sept2019: The -nim appears with a few plant names and seems to be a reflex of numi 'wood, tree', so this would be an old compound that's become a single phonological word); Cognacy u Wipio 1996:135 Simon Overall, 23Sept2019: I don't have a strong feeling one way or the other regarding cognacy of the Aguaruna term with the others. One possibility is that there was a proto-form like *uwii, and pre-Aguaruna added a second element /ai/ giving *uwii-ai,
seje palm ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá patoá, patuá flora-fauna Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua kugkúk kungkúk See Language page mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
coca coca coca flora-fauna Erythroxylum coca missing See Language page secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes plant
cotton algodón algodão flora-fauna Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers) ujúch uxútʃ inheritance See Language page secondary scrub vegetation plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
kapok ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.) sumaumeira flora-fauna Ceiba pentandra ménte mɨntɨ See Language page northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas tree
hot pepper ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru) pimenta flora-fauna Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens jíma xíma loan, direction unknown Huaorani gima See Language page secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden plant
peanut maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete amendoim flora-fauna Arachis hypogaea dúse dúsɨ See Language page plant
pineapple piña abacaxi flora-fauna Ananas comosus pina pina loan Spanish See Language page plant
arrow cane, wildcane caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio flora-fauna Gynerium sagittatum tagkán tangkán See Language page tropical regions, especially river banks plant
banana, plantain banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano banana flora-fauna Musa sp. paampa (plantain), tsamau (Overall); baku, sangkúsuk paampa (plantain), tsamau (Overall); baku, sangkúsuk unknown may be semantic shift from variant of 'bastard plantain' (puumpu); other Jivaroan forms are prob. loan from Quechua palanda < Spanish See Language page Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
beans frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas) feijão flora-fauna Phaseolus spp. bíik bi:k loan, direction unknown Candoshi See Language page plant
grass hierba, pasto capim, grama flora-fauna (generic) dupa dupa inheritance See Language page
maize, corn mazorca, maiz milho flora-fauna Zea mays sháa ʃáa doubtful loan (into protolanguage?), direction unknown Ticuna tʃa See Language page widespread, esp. in river floodplains plant
tobacco tabaco tabaco flora-fauna Nicotiana tabacum tsaág tsa:ng doubtful loan into protolanguage Arawak tsema See Language page plant
tree árbol arvore flora-fauna númi númi inheritance See Language page
achiote, anatto achiote urucum flora-fauna Bixa orellana ipák ipák inheritance See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens shrub
inga guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru) inga flora-fauna Inga spp. wámpa wámpa unknown See Language page Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
avocado palta, aguacate abacate flora-fauna Persea americana kái kái See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens tree
bitterwood tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru) envira flora-fauna Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala See Language page secondary forests, native to Brazil tree
brazil nut castaña castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis) flora-fauna Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia'] See Language page 1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua. tree
cashew anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela) caju flora-fauna Anacardium occidentale / giganteum káshu káʃu loan Spanish (Port/Tupi) See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
genipap jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico genipapo, jenipapo flora-fauna Genipapa americana súwa súwa inheritance See Language page widespread lowland SA shrub
japurá oreja de murcielago japurá flora-fauna Erisma japura See Language page large tree
rubber tree (sorva) caucho, siringa, shiringa seringa, borracha flora-fauna Hevea sp. shijíg(ka) (Sp.) ʃixíng(ka) See Language page Widespread Amazonia tree
ucuqui yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru) ucuqui flora-fauna Pouteria ucuqui yaás ja:s See Language page native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
Amazon tree-grape uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.) cucura flora-fauna Pourouma cecropiifolia shuwíya ʃuwíja doubtful loan, direction unknown Iquito sawíti See Language page grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times a tree; not a true grape
manioc (bitter or generic) yuca brava mandioca flora-fauna Manihot esculenta missing See Language page not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition. Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet) yuca, caribe macaxeira flora-fauna Manihot esculenta yujúmak, máma juxúmak, máma unknown; loan, direction unknown (into protolg?) Boran and Araona terms for 'manioc food/bread', e.g. Bora (archaic) maʔmá-ɯ See Language page Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
potato papa batata flora-fauna Solanum tuberosum pápa (Quechua loan?) pápa See Language page secondary scrub vegetation compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara batata-doce flora-fauna Ipomoea batatas idáuk idáuk doubtful loan TG: Kokama jɨtika See Language page plant
cará tuber, purple or white camote, sachapapa cará roxo, branco flora-fauna Dioscorea sp. kégke kɨngkɨ See Language page secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings plant
tannia, yautia huitina (Peru), ñame taioba branca flora-fauna Xanthosoma spp. ságku sánku See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree) calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara cabaça flora-fauna Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine) namúk ('calabaza'); punu ('calabaza, envase de agua') namúk ('calabaza'); punu ('calabaza, envase de agua') See Language page indigenous gardens plant; tree
squash calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru) abóbora flora-fauna Cucurbita sp. yuwí ('zapallo') juwí ('zapallo') inheritance See Language page plant
cipó vine tamishi, bejuco, yare cipó flora-fauna Heteropsis spp. káap; káapi (Overall) ká:p, káapi (Overall) See Language page secondary forest, floodplain vine
fish poison, barbasco barbasco, matapez (Colombia) timbó flora-fauna Lonchocarpus spp. timu timu loan Tupi-Guarani, prob. loan into Candoshi See Language page secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation shrub/tree
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca ayahuasca, yage ayahuasca, caapi flora-fauna Banisteriopsis caapi yáji (loan), datém jáxi, datɨm loan - WW; inheritance %jahe; cf. káapi 'tamshi vine' (used for tying) See Language page semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW vine
hallucinogenic snuff vilca, cebil, yopo paricá, yopo flora-fauna Anadenanthera sp. or virola See Language page
insect (generic) insecto insecto flora-fauna generic See Language page
ant (generic) hormiga formiga flora-fauna Formicidae (no generic) (no generic) See Language page
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro tocandira flora-fauna Paraponera clavata yutúi jutúi inheritance must be loan INTO Napo Quechua; other varieties have transparent compound forms See Language page
leaf-cutter ant Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse saúva flora-fauna Atta sp. weéka wɨ:ka doubtful loan into protolg, direction unknown cf. Nadahup See Language page
honeybee abeja abelha flora-fauna Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis dápa dápa doubtful loan (into protolg?) Arawak; cf. Kokama, Candoshi See Language page
cockroach cucaracha barata-do-mato flora-fauna order Blattaria tukajách; ʃuuta (Overall) tukaxátʃ; ʃuuta (Overall) loan; loan, direction unknown Candoshi See Language page
firefly, lightning bug lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin) vagalume flora-fauna fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae taigkák taignkák unknown See Language page
butterfly, moth mariposa borboleta flora-fauna order Lepidoptera wámpishuk wámpiʃuk inheritance See Language page
moth mariposa nocturna, polilla mariposa flora-fauna order Lepidoptera See Language page
angleworm lombriz minhoca flora-fauna order Opisthopora námpichi námpitʃi inheritance See Language page
centipede ciempiés centopéia flora-fauna class Chilopoda kiíwi ki:wi See Language page
scorpion escorpión; alacran escorpião flora-fauna order Scorpiones titígki titíngki inheritance See Language page
cicada cigarra, chicharra cigarra flora-fauna super fam. Cicadoidea chiáchia tʃiátʃia doubtful loan (into protolg?) - WW onomatopoeic See Language page
flea pulga pulga flora-fauna order Siphonaptera súgku súngku inheritance See Language page
blowfly/housefly mosca mosca flora-fauna Diptera kaáp ka:p inheritance See Language page
cricket saltón, grillo grilo flora-fauna family Gryllidae mánchi mántʃi inheritance See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil) suri, mojojoy larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá flora-fauna Rhynchophorus sp. dukúch dukútʃ doubtful loan Quechua tuku See Language page
praying mantis, stick insects mantis religiosa louva-a-deus flora-fauna order Mantodea, family Mantidae tukágmanchis tukángmantʃis See Language page
mosquito mosquito, zancudo mosquito, carapana flora-fauna Anopheles sp. wiyúnch (mosquito), mánchu (zancudo) wijuntʃ, mantʃu doubtful loan; loan, direction unknown Pano, esp. Matses biuʃ; Candoshi See Language page
termites, white-ants comején (Peru), termitas cupim flora-fauna order Isoptera kábau kábau inheritance See Language page
tick garrapata carrapato flora-fauna superfam Ixodoidea piiti pi:ti inheritance See Language page
wasp avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa caba flora-fauna order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita éte ɨtɨ inheritance See Language page
snail caracol, churo (Peru) caracol flora-fauna class Gastropoda tejés, kúgku tɨxɨs, kúngku unique; inheritance See Language page
spider araña aranha flora-fauna Arachnidae, Araneae tséatsea tsɨatsɨa inheritance See Language page
jaguar yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru) onca flora-fauna Panthera onca puágkat puángkat unique See Language page
manatee vaca marina, manatí peixe-boi flora-fauna Trichechus sp. See Language page
brown woolly monkey Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt macaco barrigudo flora-fauna Lagothrix lagothricha chúu tʃúu loan (into protolg?) - WW %tʃuru; prob origin Quechua; cf. Candoshi See Language page
howler monkey (red-handed) mono aullador, mono coto (Peru) guariba flora-fauna Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.] yakuma jakuma inheritance See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero macaco prego flora-fauna Cebus apella missing See Language page
white-fronted capuchin Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru) Caiarara flora-fauna Cebus albifrons jaagkúam (?) haagkúam (?) doubtful loan cf. Iquito hakáana See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia) macaco aranha, coatá, quatá flora-fauna Ateles belzebuth/paniscus wáshi wáʃi doubtful loan (into protolg?) Arawak 'capuchin'; e.g. Yavitero huatsĩ See Language page
opossum zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo mucura flora-fauna family Didelphidae kujáncham kuxántʃam inheritance See Language page
giant otter Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria ariranha flora-fauna Pteronura brasiliensis See Language page
neotropical otter (small) Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia) lontra flora-fauna Lontra longicaudis úyu úju inheritance See Language page
collared peccary sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar caititu, caetitu flora-fauna Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu yugkipák jungkipák inheritance See Language page
white-lipped peccary Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana queixada flora-fauna Tayassu pecari páki páki inheritance See Language page
porcupine puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru) cuandu, porco-espinho flora-fauna family Erethizontidae kúju kúxu loan, direction unknown Candoshi See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache quati flora-fauna genus Nasua kúshi kúʃi doubtful loan (into protolg?) TG kwaʃi See Language page
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti) Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado cutia flora-fauna Dasyprocta spp. káyuk(a) kájuk(a) inheritance See Language page
capybara Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco capivara flora-fauna Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris ugkubíu ungkubíu loan (into protolg?), direction unknown Candoshi See Language page
green acouchi Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo cutiara flora-fauna Myoprocta pratti See Language page
paca (lowland) Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana) paca flora-fauna Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.) káshai káʃai inheritance See Language page
mouse, rat ratón camundongo, rata flora-fauna Mus musculus katíp katíp inheritance See Language page
squirrel ardilla, danta (Ven) serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo flora-fauna family Sciuridae kunám(pe) kunám(pe) loan (into protolg?), direction unknown Candoshi See Language page
tapir sachavaca, danta anta flora-fauna Tapirus terrestris pabáu pabáu loan (into protolg?), direction unknown Candoshi See Language page
deer venado veado, cariacu flora-fauna family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus jápa, yuwíchu xápa, juwítʃu inheritance; loan Quechua See Language page
horse caballo cavalho flora-fauna Equus caballus [kawayu] [kawayu] See Language page


Cultural Vocabulary (97)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes Word Structure Word Structure Notes General Notes Source
basket (general) canasta, canasto, cesta cesto culture-material chagkín, piták, tukúpi tʃangkín, piták, tukúpi inheritance; loan (into protolg?) - WW; unknown %panaku, cf. Candoshi ptak See Language page
basket, small canasta, canasto, cesta cesto pequeno, tampado culture-material tukúpi, piták tukúpi, piták See Language page
bead abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar miçanga culture-material shaúk ʃaúk unknown See Language page
bed cama cama culture-material pegák pɨgák inheritance See Language page
hammock hamaca, chinchorro rede culture-material amák (Sp.), tampu (small hammock) amák (Sp.), tampu (small hammock) inheritance See Language page
bench, seat banco, silla, asiento banco culture-material ekeémtai ɨkɨ:mtai inheritance derived from 'sit' See Language page
canoe canoa canoa transport kánu kánu loan - WW %kanawa See Language page
drum (large signal) tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia) tambor culture túntui túntui loan - WW %toto (onomatopoeic?) Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances See Language page
drum tambor tambor culture-mythology tampúg tampúng loan Spanish See Language page
shaman, healer chamán, brujo xaman, pajé, feiticeiro culture-mythology iwishín, pámuk iwiʃín, pámuk inheritance loan into Candoshi; cf. iwishi-inu 'bewitch-NMLZ' In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv See Language page
healer curandero benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano) culture-mythology iwishín, tsuwájatin iwiʃín, tsuwáxatin Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well. See Language page
broom escoba vassoura culture-material japímuk xapímuk inheritance See Language page
clothing ropa roupa culture-mythology jáanch xá:ntʃ inheritance See Language page
fence, palisade cerco cerca other taníish, péeg taní:ʃ, pɨ:g unknown may be related to defense/warfare? See Language page
firewood leña lenha other chígkim tʃíngkim inheritance See Language page
Curupira (spirit type) Curupira, Madremonte Curupira culture-mythology malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio espirito culture-mythology wa'kan ('ghost') wa'kan ('ghost') inheritance See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure dios(es), deidad divinidade, figura mítica culture-mythology apa-hui apa-hui semantic shift father' In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc. See Language page
flute flauta, quena (Peru) flauta culture-mythology pigkúi pingkúi loan Quechua/Aymara pinkillu multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc. See Language page
panpipe carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora caniço, flauta de pã culture-mythology See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making canoa para chicha cocho de caxiri narcotics See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya) kapiwaya capiwaya culture-mythology See Language page
knife cuchillo faca culture-material cuchí (Spanish loan) kutʃí loan Spanish cuchillo See Language page
machete machete facão culture-material máchit (Spanish loan) mátʃit loan Spanish machete See Language page
axe/stone axe hacha (de piedra) machado (de pedra) subsistence tool kanám(pa) kanám(pa) unique especially for clearing fields See Language page
arrow flecha flecha subsistence tool shikiít ʃiki:t unique hunting, warfare See Language page
spear lanza lança subsistence tool nágki, túpu nángki, túpu inheritance; loan Bora tɯpoo 'arrow' See Language page
bow arco arco subsistence tool numi 'apun-bau (IDS); tumág (bow used as musical instrument) numi 'apun-bau; tumág (bow used as musical instrument) unique; inheritance arco See Language page
paddle/oar remo remo transport kadaít kadaít unique See Language page
plate plato prato culture-material parátu parátu loan Spanish See Language page
pot olla, pote panela, vasilha subsistence tool ichínak itʃínak inheritance See Language page
basin/bowl tazón, plato hondo, taza tijela culture-material ɨgkɨa yu-tai 'dish' ɨgkɨa yu-tai 'dish' unknown See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru) forno para beiju subsistence tool missing agriculture? See Language page
rattle matraca, maraca marico, chocalho culture-mythology missing See Language page
resin resina, brea, copal resina, brea, breu subsistence tool púwag, pégkae púwang, pɨngkaɨ inheritance See Language page
wax cera cera other nuhi (beeswax) nuhi (beeswax) inheritance See Language page
honey miel mel food dapa yumi-hi 'bee liquid' dapa yumi-hi 'bee liquid' inheritance only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia? See Language page
stone for lighting fires piedra para hacer fuego pedra para acender fogo culture-material See Language page
rope/string mecate, cuerda, soga corda culture daék daɨk inheritance See Language page
tattoo tatuaje, tatu tatuagem culture-mythology u'sum-tai; u'su-mat u'sum-tai; u'su-mat See Language page
thatch/roof crisneja palha, caraná culture-material duka inumha hɨgamk-amu (IDS) duka inumha hɨgamk-amu inheritance See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women) yurupari jurupari culture-mythology a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women. See Language page
fetish, charm fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga feitiço, puçanga culture-mythology tsumaík tsumaík See Language page
feather headdress plumaje, corona de plumas enfeite/capacete de penas culture-mythology atséjutai atsɨxutai See Language page
paint body, body paint pintura corporal pintura corporal culture-mythology jámpu xámpu See Language page
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven tierra do los muertos terra dos mortos culture-mythology See Language page
school escuela escola acculturation [pa'pi] auh-tai ('paper-read') [pa'pi] auh-tai ('paper-read') See Language page
bottle botella garrafa acculturation butíya butíja See Language page
paper papel papel acculturation [pa'pi] [pa'pi] loan Span/Port 'papel' See Language page
dream sueño, soñar sonho, sonhar culture-mythology kaha; kahi (v.) kaha; kahi (v.) See Language page
chicken gallina galinha acculturation ataš ataʃ unknown diffused throughout family; possibly from %kara + -ʃo; cf. Candoshi ktáʃó See Language page
grave tumba, sepultura, sepulcro sepultura, sepulcro, cova culture-mythology u'kumas-bau u'kumas-bau See Language page
pipe for tobacco pipa cachimbo other See Language page
sugarcane/sugar azúcar, caña de azúcar açucar (de cana) acculturation pagat 'sugar cane' pagat 'sugar cane' See Language page
skirt falda, saya, fustan, pollera saia culture-material i'tipak i'tipak unique See Language page
shoes zapatos sapatos dress [sapat] [sapat] See Language page
policeman polícia policía acculturation See Language page
soldier soldado soldado acculturation suntag suntag loan Span/Port soldado See Language page
cat gato gato acculturation [bišu] [bišu] loan - WW %miʃi See Language page
gun arma, escopeta espingarda, fusil acculturation aka'hu aka'hu unknown See Language page
hat sombero chapéu dress ac̷ɨhu-tai atsɨhu-tai unknown See Language page
chief/leader jefe, cacique chefe culture-mythology apu-hi (Quechua loan) apu-hi loan - WW %apu See Language page
club garrote, cachiporra clava, porrete subsistence tool kačuim katʃuim See Language page
loincloth taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla tanga, tapa-sexo dress itípak itípak See Language page
fireplace hogar lareira other hii ika'pag-bau hii ika'pag-bau See Language page
fishing line cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze linha de pesca subsistence tool agsɨa anagkɨ (agsɨa=fishhook) agsɨa anagkɨ (agsɨa=fishhook) See Language page
salt sal sal food wɨɨ wɨɨ inheritance See Language page
song (generic) canción, canto canção culture-mythology kantamtái (Sp.), anen (trad. song type), nampét kantamtái (Sp.), anen (trad. song type), nampét loan; inheritance Spanish See Language page
blowgun cerbatana, pucuna (Peru) zarabatana subsistence tool úum ú:m inheritance currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region See Language page
dart (blowgun) dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru) dardo, seta subsistence tool tsɨntsaka tsɨntsaka hunting and warfare See Language page
fan abanico abanador, abano subsistence tool awág(ku) awáng(ku) inheritance esp. for fanning a cooking fire See Language page
fish (with line) anzuelear, pescar con linea pescar (com linha) food agséamat, ajuntút angsɨamat, axuntút See Language page
fish (with fish-poison) pescar con barbasco, barbasquear pescar com timbó; tinguijar food missing See Language page
hunt cazar caçar food máut, egamát máut, ɨgamát See Language page
game animal caza, animal de caza caça, animal de caça food kuntin kuntin inheritance Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl) cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo cuia subsistence tool tsápa, namúk ('calabaza'); punu ('calabaza, envase de agua') tsápa, namúk ('calabaza'); punu ('calabaza, envase de agua') inheritance; inheritance; loan, direction unknown Quechua punu See Language page
grater rallador, rallo ralador, ralo subsistence tool missing esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf) barbacoa jirau subsistence tool missing See Language page
mortar mortero pilão subsistence tool čimihinč tʃimihintʃ unique See Language page
pestle pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor mão de pilão subsistence tool tuntuip kuntuhɨ-amu tuntuip kuntuhɨ-amu See Language page
fermented drink masato, chicha caxiri, chicha culture nijamánch nixamántʃ inheritance prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made See Language page
flour/meal from manioc fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina farinha food mama puwahi i'nanh-amu mama puwahi i'nanh-amu unique cf. 'mama', poss. loan Boran? agriculture See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe beiju food tata tata loan Quechua tanda usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits See Language page
starch (tapioca, other) almidón goma de tapioca food missing See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau cahuana, caguana mingau food missing agriculture See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer) tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca tipiti food missing word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc See Language page
tripod for washing manioc trípode tripé subsistence tool agriculture See Language page
venom for darts, poison veneno curare subsistence tool tikún, tsegás tikún, tsɨgás inheritance hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?) See Language page
woven strainer/sieve colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru) peneira, cumatá subsistence tool tsatsamtái tsatsamtái inheritance agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour See Language page
bait for fishing cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru) isca subsistence tool wiya 'bait' wija 'bait' can refer to worms; more generic See Language page
fishtrap trampa de peces, trampa matapi, cacuri subsistence tool See Language page
bottom grinding stone manufacture káya kája if different word from top grinding stone See Language page
digging stick subsistence tool See Language page
top grinding stone metate, mano; piedra de moler metate, mano manufacture use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic) subsistence tool See Language page
spearthrower subsistence tool See Language page
house other jéga xɨga inheritance See Language page


Grammatical Data (226)
Category Grammatical Feature Grammatical Feature: Notes Feature Status Grammatical Notes Source Etymology Notes General Notes Phylogenetic Code
Phonology - Segmental Pre-/post-nasalized stops Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive. no Overall 2007:20-7
Phonology - Segmental Glottalized/ejective consonants Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative] no Overall 2007:20
Phonology - Segmental Palatalized stops Phonemic contrast no Overall 2007:20
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic vowel length Does the language have long and short vowels? no Overall 2007:42
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels no Overall 2007:40
Phonology - Segmental Complex onsets Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme yes Overall 2007:58 But on a surface level. Syllables have the (C)V(C) structure in a deep level but syllable structure may become rather complex at surface level because of processes of losing vowels
Phonology - Segmental No codas *(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained] no Overall 2007:58 Codas are allowed
Phonology - Segmental Word-final coda required Do all syllables end in a consonant? no Overall 2007:58
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive tones Note how many contrastive tones no Overall 2007:19-115
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive stress Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference? yes Overall 2007:96-9 However, it seems that stress assignment is different for nouns/andjectives and verbs
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments no Overall 2007:49-51 Nasalization to contiguos vowels and/or glides but it is blocked by any non-glide segment.
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to? yes Overall 2007:49-51
Phonology - Suprasegmental Vowel harmony yes Overall 2007:93-4 But only with one suffix. Otherwise, it does not occur.
Morphology - General Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb) Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number] yes Some third person markers are fused with tense markers. Overall 2007:329-30 However, this is a very peripheral feature of the grammar since fusion only occurs in suffixes marking 3rd person and TAM under certain circunstances
Morphology - General Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes Stem change, tone no Overall 2007:328-57
Morphology - General Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes) Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word yes Overall 207:271
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing There are many more prefixes than suffixes no Overall 2007:301 The causative is the only prefix in the language
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing There are many more suffixes than prefixes yes Overall 2007:301
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different no Overall 2007:301
Morphology - General Reduplication: full The full morpheme is reduplicated no Overall 2007:109-11
Morphology - General Reduplication: partial Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated yes Overall 2007:109-11
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive NN compounding Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced yes Overall 2007: 131
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV serialization (without compounding) Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection no info more likely no
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV compounding Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word no info more likely no
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap' no info more likely no
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Auxiliary verb(s) There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs yes There are 11 verbs that can function as auxiliary verbs. Overall 2007:279-80 There are six auxiliary verbs
Morphology - Incorporation Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process Verb contains nominal segment no Overall 2007:269-72
Morphology - Incorporation Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns no Overall 2007:269-72
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classes/genders Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP yes Overall 2007:137 There are 4 noun classes: proper names, kin terms, locational terms and others
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Number of noun classes/genders Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders 4 These noun clasea are based on morphosyntactic criteria rather than on semantic criteria Overall 2007:137
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders) Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain. no Overall 2007:124-37
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates Masculine, feminine, neuter no Overall 2007:124-5 Only four nouns are distinguished lexically for gender.
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates no Overall 2007:124-5
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system Animate/inanimate, human/non-human no Overall 2007:124-37
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only no Overall 2007:124-37
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates no Overall 2007:124-37
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates no Overall 2007:124-37
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification "Repeater" classifiers Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot" no Overall 2007:124-37 However, the words for "male" and "female" can be used to convey gender
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals) Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals no Overall 2007:162-8
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.' no Overall 2007:208-14
Nominal Categories - Number Singular number may be marked on the noun Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups no Overall 2007:124, 195-7 more likely no
Nominal Categories - Number Plural affix on noun no Overall 2007:124, 195-7
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun no Overall 2007:124, 195-7
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by reduplication of noun no Overall 2007:124, 195-7
Nominal Categories - Number Plural word/clitic no Overall 2007:124, 195-7
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked on human or animate nouns only no Overall 2007:124, 195-7
Nominal Categories - Number Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns no Overall 2007:124, 195-7
Nominal Categories - Number Unique associative plural marker e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them' no info more likely no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Definite or specific articles Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only no info
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness no Overall 2007:243-69
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Indefinite or non-specific article or marker no info
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you no Overall 2007:154
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound) no Overall 2007:362
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number) Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system 3 Those are the nominative forms of the demosntratives. The demosntratives vary thier form according to the case they have (acc., loc., instr., etc.) Overall 2007:157
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.) no Overall 2007:157-9
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3sg pronouns no Overall 2007:154
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3pl pronouns no Overall 2007:154
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns no Overall 2007:154
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Formal/informal distinction in pronouns Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns no Overall 2007:154
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Reflexive pronouns e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix no info Overall 2007:154-61, 311-13 more likely no
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Adpositions mark core NPs Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients no Overall 2007:214
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: number of cases Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun 7 Overall 2007:214 Genitive is not considered as case
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are no Overall 2007:214
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: symmetrical All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity) yes Overall 2007:21-30
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: asymmetrical Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates no Overall 2007:21-30 However, some NP can be left without case mark according to a EAH
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: suffix or postpositional clitic yes Overall 2007:214
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: prefix or prepositional clitic no Overall 2007:214
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: infix or inpositional clitic no Overall 2007:214
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: stem change no Overall 2007:214
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: tone no Overall 2007:214
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: comitative = instrumental Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument' no Overall 2007:214-30
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-2 At least some part of the system involves base-2 no Overall 2007:163
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-5 At least some part of the system involves base-5 yes Overall 2007:163
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-10 At least some part of the system involves base-10 no Overall 2007:163
Nominal Categories - Numerals Other base (specify) 4, 20, etc. no Overall 2007:163
Nominal Categories - Numerals Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5 e.g. two = 'eye-quantity' yes For numeral 4: ipak usumtɨt "8finger used to) paint with annato (e.g. index figer) Overall 2007:163 From 4 up to 10
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 5 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no Overall 2007:163
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 10 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no Overall 2007:163 Numbers go up to 20
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival yes Overall 2007:241
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Person inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival yes Overall 2007:241
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N alienable/inalienable? no Overall 2007:261-2
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N alienable/inalienable? yes Overall 2007:261-2 However, for first person singular pronoun the possesive marker is attached to the possesor pronoun
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent e.g. 'the boy-'s dog' no Overall 2007:261
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head e.g. 'the boy his-dog' yes Overall 2007:261
Nominal Syntax - Possession Possessive classifiers There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities no Overall 2007:261-2
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of inalienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no info Overall 2007:261-2 more likely no
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of alienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no info Overall 2007:261-2 more likely no
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form no info Overall 2007:261-2 more likely no
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of kin terms 'my-father' but *father no info Overall 2007:261-2 more likely no
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal) 'my-leg' but *leg no info Overall 2007:261-2 more likely no
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man) no info Overall 2007:261-2 more likely no
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Underived adjectives There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes yes Overall 2007:137-8 There are about 40 underived adjectives
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco no Overall 2007:137-41
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival) There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb yes Overall 2007:428
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer) There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb yes Overall 2007:430-1
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song) There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb yes Overall 2007:433
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive verbalizing morphology There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective no info
Nominal Syntax - Other NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently 'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary' yes Overall 2007:265 There is other strategy in which the NPs are just listed (yuxtaposition)
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated past marker(s) Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere yes There are six different suffixes marking different past tenses which also encode differences in aspect Overall 2007:334 There are four past tense markers
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. distant vs. recent past yes Overall 2007:334
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. imminent vs. distant future yes Overall 2007:347-57
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated future or non-past marker(s) yes Overall 2007:347-57
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: prefix no Overall 2007:331-57
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: suffix yes Overall 2007:331-57
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut no Overall 2007:331-57
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect suppletion no Overall 2007:331-57
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood yes Overall 2007:350
Verbal Categories - Mood Polite imperative morpheme There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language) yes Overall 2007:350 more likely not
Verbal Categories - Mood Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses yes Overall 2007:324, 358
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative) as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing' yes Overall 2007:353
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: affix on verb Inflectional marking of capacity to do something no
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: verbal construction no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: other marking no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: affix on verb Modal expressing hypothesis yes Overall 2007:371
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: verbal construction no Overall 2007:371
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: other marking no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Marking of expected/unexpected action or result There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected yes Overall 2007:375
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal frustrative Modal expressing frustration ("in vain") yes Overall 2007:384
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal habitual Modal expressing habituality no Overall 2007:332 Present tense conveys habituality
Verbal Categories - Mood Apprehensive construction There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens' yes Overall 2007:357
Verbal Categories - Mood Reality status marking on verbs There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events' no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Affect markers (positive/negative) Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative no info
Verbal Categories - Directionals Directional elements affixed to the verb There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc. no info more likely no
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized visual Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker no Overall 2007:471, 549
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized nonvisual Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt) no Overall 2007:471, 549
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized inferential Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker. no Overall 2007:471, 549
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized reportive Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly' no Overall 2007:471, 549
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized quotative Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse no Overall 2007:471, 549
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Other evidential Any other evidential values not represented above no Overall 2007:471, 549
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic no Overall 2007:471, 549
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: part of tense system Includes portmanteau morphs no Overall 2007:471, 549
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: separate particle no Overall 2007:471, 549
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: modal morpheme no Overall 2007:471, 549
Verbal Categories - Verbal number Verbal number suppletion no Overall 2007:123
Verbal Categories - Other Social interaction markers Note the type of interaction no info more likely not
Word Order No fixed basic constituent order yes Overall 2007:545 However, it is preferred to have the V at the end of the sentence
Word Order VS in intransitive clauses Verb precedes subject no Overall 2007:545 But there may be some variation
Word Order VS in transitive clauses no Overall 2007:546 But there may be some variation
Word Order VO in transitive clauses Verb precedes object no Overall 2007:545 But there may be some variation
Word Order OS in transitive clauses Object precedes subject no Overall 2007:545
Word Order Preposition-Noun no Overall 2007:214-30
Word Order Noun-Postposition or case suffix yes Overall 2007:214-30 case suffix
Word Order Gen-Noun Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book) yes Overall 2007:545
Word Order Noun-Gen Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John') no Overall 2007:545
Word Order Adj-Noun Adjective precedes the noun no Overall 2007:243
Word Order Noun-Adj Adjective follows the noun yes Overall 2007:243 So, the general structure of Aguaruna NP is (Det)N(Adj)
Word Order Dem-Noun yes Overall 2007:243
Word Order Noun-Dem no Overall 2007:243
Word Order Num-Noun yes Overall 2007:248
Word Order Noun-Num yes Overall 2007:248
Word Order Noun-Rel Relative clause follows noun that it modifies yes Overall 2007:243
Word Order Rel-Noun Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies no Overall 2007:243
Word Order Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative) e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away') no Overall 2007:253-61
Word Order Relative clause is correlative or adjoined e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat' no Overall 2007:253-61
Word Order Question word is clause initial 'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause yes Overall 2007:365-70
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects yes Overall 2007:214
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked no Overall 2007:214
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker no Overall 2007:214
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers no Overall 2007:214
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep) no Overall 2007:214
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative yes Overall 2007:215
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative no Overall 2007:215
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no Overall 2007:215
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite no Overall 2007:215
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive no Overall 2007:215
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs yes Overall 2007:328-31, 361-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no Overall 2007:328-31, 361-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive no Overall 2007:328-31, 361-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3) no Overall 2007:328-31, 361-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: split More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc. no Overall 2007:328-31, 361-5
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects yes Overall 2007:214 However, pronouns usually appear to mark contrast or disambiguate a sentence
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option) no Overall 2007:328-31, 361-5
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option) yes Overall 2007:328-31, 361-5
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. no Overall 2007:154-7
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects no Overall 2007:214
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking on intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes yes Overall 2007:328-31, 361-5
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers yes Overall 2007:328-31, 361-5
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take object (P) markers yes Overall 2007:315, 328-31, 361-5
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects 3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system no Overall 2007:328-31, 361-5 However, 3rd person can be zero-marked in some instacnes depending on TAM while 1st and 2nd are always marked
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects 3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system yes Overall 2007:315
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Number can be marked separately from person on the verb Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately no Overall 2007:361
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes no Overall 2007:261, 361
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Gender distinguished in verbal person markers For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent no Overall 2007:361
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: indirect object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently no Overall 2007:456-7
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: double object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives yes Overall 2007:456-7 Both objects receive accusaitve case
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: secondary object In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently no Overall 2007:456-7
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal. yes Overall 2007:313
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reflexive: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive. yes Overall 2007:311
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb no Overall 2007:311-3
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Passive Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted no info Overall 2007:305 More likely no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Antipassive Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages no info Overall 2007:305 More likely no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Other intransitivizing morphology There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency yes Detransitivizer in which the O argument becomes S of the ntransitive
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: benefactive Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb yes Overall 2007:306 The varinats are lexically conditioned
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: other Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb yes This same suffix can add a "malefactive" or a "goal" Overall 2007:306 The applicative can introduce also a malefactive or goal argument
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: prefix Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb yes Overall 2007:302-3 unpredictable prefixed vowel
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: suffix Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb yes Overall 2007:302-3 There are two causative: the suffix /-miti(ka)/ and a prefixed vowel which is not predictable. But the suffix is much more productive
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix no Overall 2007:302-4
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: serial verb or analytical construction Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization no Overall 2007:302-4
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy' Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.' no info more likely no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated sociative Indicates that causer participates in event no info more likely no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence) There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency yes Overall 2007:311
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a preposed element Clausal negator is a preposed element no Overall 2007:324-6, 481-2
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a postposed element Clausal negator is a postposed element no Overall 2007:324-6, 481-2
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: affix Negatives: affix yes Overall 2007:324-6 The first suffix occurs in present and remote past tenses whereas the second occurs elsewhere
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: particle Negatives: particle no Overall 2007:324-6, 481-2
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: auxiliary verb Negatives: auxiliary verb no Overall 2007:324-6, 481-2
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: double Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas' no Overall 2007:324-6, 481-2
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist' no info There is a verb which means "it does not exist"
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative expression 'I don't know' Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase no Overall 2007:324-6, 481-2 However, negative clause need to have a focused NP
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: interrogative particle Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle yes Overall 2007:476
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: verb morphology Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology no Overall 2007:476 However, the polar interrogative particle can also be attached to verbs
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: word order Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) no Overall 2007:476-8
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: intonation only Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only no Overall 2007:476-8
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Content questions: word order differs from declaratives Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.) no Overall 2007:478-9 Presence of wh-word and no apocope in the verb marks content questions
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: verbal Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position yes Overall 2007:238-9 Based on the examples
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: nominal Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position no Overall 2007:238-9 Based on the examples
Simple Clauses - Predication Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all) no info Overall 2007:237-42 more likely not
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head) yes Overall 2007:253-5
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses. no Overall 2007:253-5
Simple Clauses - Predication Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause no Overall 2007:253-5
Simple Clauses - Predication Relativizer is a verbal affix yes Overall 2007:253-5
Simple Clauses - Predication Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes) no Overall 2007:198, 253-7
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions Grammaticalized verbal desiderative Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it) yes Overall 2007:354
Simple Clauses - Other Clause chaining Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause. yes Overall 2007:483
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked switch-reference system There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined yes Overall 2007:390-404
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence no Overall 2007:496-500