Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Makuna

Family: Tukanoan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: myy
Location: -0.14°, -70.07°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information

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Data Sources: Chacon, Thiago. 2014. A Revised Proposal of Proto-Tukanoan Consonants and Tukanoan Family Classification. International Journal of American Linguistics 80.3: 275-322. Huber, R.; Reed, R. 1992. Comparative vocabulary: selected words in indigenous languages of Colombia. Instituto Linguistico de Verano. Smothermon, Jeffrey R. and Josephine H. Smothermon, compilers. 1993. Masa ye, gawa ye rãca ãmara tuti (Macuna - español diccionario de 850 palabras). Bogotá: Editorial Alberto Lleras Camargo.

Basic Vocabulary (191)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar	gɨa	gɨa	inheritance			See Language page
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	~badi	~badi	inheritance		no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted	See Language page
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	jɨ	jɨ	inheritance		For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms	See Language page
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	~bɨa	~bɨa	inheritance			See Language page
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	~bɨ	~bɨ	inheritance			See Language page
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	~ida (mf); iti (n.)	~ida (mf); iti (n.)	inheritance			See Language page
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	~i (m.); iso (f.); iti (n.)	~i (m.); iso (f.); iti (n.)	inheritance			See Language page
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	jesa-re 'to be above sth'	xesa-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar			missing			See Language page
all	todo	todos	other	jedi-re (used as a finite intransitive verb form, cf. all/todo(s) is a determiner); jeyaro; ña jedirã	xedi-ɾe; xejaɾo; ja xediɾã	inheritance			See Language page
and	y	e	grammar						See Language page
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body	ãña yaga; ãña rirajea (ãña for 'snake/colubrid'); ñama yaga	ãja jaga; ãja ɾiɾaxea; jama yaga	inheritance			See Language page
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body			missing			See Language page
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	õja	õxa	inheritance			See Language page
at	en, a	em, a	location						See Language page
back	espalda	costas	body	jᵾdojᵾa	xɨdoxɨa	inheritance			See Language page
bad	mal	mal	quality	bɨo-rise, ~jeja-rise	bɨo-rise, ~jeja-rise	unknown			See Language page
bark	corteza	casca	environment	~rahua	~rahua	unique			See Language page
belly	barriga	barriga	body	heraga	heraga	inheritance			See Language page
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location			missing			See Language page
big	grande	grande	quality	hai-rise, kɨ-rise	hai-rise, kɨ-rise	inheritance			See Language page
bite	morder	morder	body	cũni-re; idi-re (insects)	kũni-ɾe; idi-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
black	negro	preto	colour	~ji-rise	~ji-rise	inheritance			See Language page
blood	sangre	sangue	body	ri	ri	inheritance			See Language page
blow	soplar	soprar	body	juti-re	xuti-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body			missing			See Language page
bone	hueso	osso	body	~goa	~goa	inheritance			See Language page
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	~ohe-a	~ohe-a	inheritance			See Language page
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	ʉsi ãmi-re; ʉsi wĩji-re (constituent ʉsi means 'ghost')	ɨsi ãmi-ɾe; ɨsi wĩxi-ɾe	unknown			See Language page
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	soe-re; ʉ̃jʉ-rise; ya-re; to burn oneself: ʉa-re	soe-ɾe; ɨ̃xɨ-ɾise; ya-ɾe; ɨa-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body	bague-re	bague-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
child	niño, niña	criança	human	~bakɨaka (m); ~bakoaka (f); ~riaka (pl)	~bakɨaka (m); ~bakoaka (f); ~riaka (pl)	inheritance			See Language page
climb	subir	subir	motion	maja-re (horizontally); mᵾja-re (vertically); roja wa-re ('to climb down a hill'); ruji-re ('to climb down a tree/steep hill; identical with sit)	maxa-ɾe; mɨxa-ɾe; ɾoxa wa-ɾe; ɾuxi-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment	ide bue-ri	ide bue-ri	inheritance			See Language page
cold	frío	frio	quality	ɨsa-	ɨsa-	inheritance			See Language page
come	venir	vir	motion	eja-re; wadi-re; wija-re	exa-ɾe; wadi-ɾe; wixa-ɾe	unknown; inheritance			See Language page
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	to cook in water: roa-re; to be cooked: ñai-rise	ɾoa-ɾe; jai-ɾise	inheritance			See Language page
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality	rioho	rioho	inheritance			See Language page
count	contar	contar	mental	cõĩa-re	kõĩa-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	oti-re	oti-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	boje-re (identical with split); jata-re (with a machete); quẽa-re (with an axe); wẽje-re (with a machete); yije-re (into little slices)	boxe-ɾe; xata-ɾe; kẽa-ɾe; wẽxe-ɾe; jixe-ɾe	unknown			See Language page
day	día	dia	time	~ɨbɨa	~ɨbɨa	inheritance			See Language page
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	~ko-re, goda-re, ɨsi hedi-re	~ko-re, goda-re, ɨsi hedi-re	inheritance			See Language page
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	sea-re	sea-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
dingo/wolf			fauna						See Language page
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	ʉe-rise	ɨe-ɾise	inheritance			See Language page
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	cãi-re	kãi-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	idi-re	idi-re	inheritance			See Language page
dry	seco	seco	quality	kara-rise	kara-rise	inheritance			See Language page
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality	odi-bi-ti	odi-bi-ti				See Language page
dust	polvo	poeira	environment	sita bue-ri, sũhũ-ri	sita bue-ri, sũhũ-ri				See Language page
ear	oreja	orelha	body	~gabo-ro	~gabo-ro	inheritance			See Language page
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	sita	sita	inheritance			See Language page
eat	comer	comer	body	ba-re	ba-re	inheritance			See Language page
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	ria	ria	inheritance			See Language page
eye	ojo	olho	body	cahe-a	cahe-a	inheritance			See Language page
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body	gᵾda	gɨda	inheritance			See Language page
fall	caer	cair	motion	ñaja-re (mostly used for inanimate things); quedi-re (animate and inanimate)	jaxa-ɾe; kedi-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
far	lejos	longe	quality	sõ-hɨ̃	sõ-hɨ̃	inheritance			See Language page
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	ɨje	ɨje	inheritance			See Language page
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	cʉ̃na (Papí), jacʉ	kɨ̃na (Papí), xakɨ	inheritance			See Language page
fear	miedo	medo	mental	güire (also used as a verb 'to be afraid of')	gwiɾe	inheritance			See Language page
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	hoa	hoa	inheritance			See Language page
fingernail	uña	unha	body	~abo wero	~abo wero	inheritance			See Language page
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	jea; jea ʉ̃jᵾrise (jea also means 'firewood')	xea; xea ɨ̃xɨrise	inheritance			See Language page
flow	fluir	fluir	motion	budi-	budi-	inheritance			See Language page
flower	flor	flor	environment	go	go	inheritance			See Language page
fly	volar	voar	motion	wɨti-re	wɨti-re	inheritance			See Language page
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment	wahɨ bue-ri	wahɨ bue-ri				See Language page
foot	pie	pé	body	gɨbo	gɨbo	inheritance			See Language page
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	rica; wild fruits: dʉjo; ñuanori; ũcu	ɾika; dɨxo; juanoɾi; ĩku	inheritance			See Language page
good	bueno	bom	quality	~keda-rise	~keda-rise	inheritance			See Language page
green	verde	verde	quality	~sɨbea-rise	~sɨbea-rise	inheritance			See Language page
grow	crecer	crescer	state	bʉcʉa-rise; jai-re (esp. for rivers); judi-rise (esp. plants)	bɨkɨa-ɾise; xai-ɾe; xudi-rise	inheritance			See Language page
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	hoa-ma	hoa-ma	inheritance			See Language page
hand	mano	mão	body	~abo	~abo	inheritance			See Language page
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	rihoga	rihoga	inheritance			See Language page
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	tɨo-re	tɨo-re	inheritance			See Language page
heart	corazón	coração	body	ɨgɨamɨ	ɨgɨamɨ	unique			See Language page
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	to be heavy: rʉ̃cʉ-rise	ɾɨ̃kɨ-ɾise	inheritance			See Language page
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	yeyo-re; to hide oneself: rudi-re	jejo-ɾe; ɾudi-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	baje-re (could be a loan from Portuguese); ja-re; roca-re ('to punch in the face') (entire lexical entry is identical with pound/beat)	baxe-ɾe; xa-ɾe; ɾoka-ɾe	unknown			See Language page
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	tutu-re	tutu-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
hot	caliente	quente	quality	asi-rise	asi-rise	inheritance			See Language page
how?	como	como	grammar	dõ bahi-ro	dõ bahi-ro	inheritance			See Language page
if	si	se	grammar						See Language page
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location			missing			See Language page
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	gᵾda misi (first constituent of this compound is gᵾda which means 'faeces')	gɨda misi	inheritance			See Language page
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body	wãqui-rise	wãki-ɾise				See Language page
kill	matar	matar	impact	~sia-re	~sia-re	inheritance			See Language page
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	~basi-re	~basi-re	inheritance			See Language page
lake	lago	lago	environment	similar: tata ('pool')	tata	unknown			See Language page
laugh	reír	rir	mental	semantically close: aja-re ('reírse'); ajati-re ('sonreírse')	axa-ɾe; axati-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	~hu	~hu	inheritance			See Language page
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	gãkõ-dɨha	gãkõ-dɨha	inheritance			See Language page
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	ñicʉgʉ̃ (for 'lower leg')	jikɨgɨ̃	inheritance			See Language page
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	yosa-re (in a hammock)	josa-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	semantically similar: yi-re (to flash); bʉjo (for 'thunderstorm'; cf. Thunder)	ji-ɾe; bɨxo	inheritance	cf. thunder		See Language page
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body	cati-re	kati-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
liver	hígado	figado	body	~jebe-reti-ro	~jebe-reti-ro	inheritance			See Language page
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	joa-	joa-	inheritance			See Language page
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	guia	guia	inheritance		order Phtiraptera	See Language page
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	wa'cʉ	wa'kɨ	unique			See Language page
man/male	hombre	homem	human	~ɨbu-gũ̵	~ɨbu-gũ̵	inheritance			See Language page
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	ri kuhi	ri kuhi	inheritance			See Language page
moon	luna	lua	environment	~ubakaji ~jabi gagɨ	~ubakaji ~jabi gagɨ	inheritance			See Language page
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	mami (mami), jaco	mami (mami), xaco	inheritance			See Language page
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	~gɨtagũ̵	~gɨtagũ̵	inheritance			See Language page
mouth	boca	boca	body	rise	rise	inheritance			See Language page
name	nombre	nome	human	~wabe	~wabe	loan into protolanguage, direction unknown	Boran, Witotoan, Tukanoan		See Language page
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body						See Language page
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	tɨ	tɨ	inheritance			See Language page
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	ãmʉma; ãmʉtutu	ãmɨma; ãmɨtutu	inheritance			See Language page
new	nuevo	novo	quality	~baba ~ja-re	~baba ~ja-re	inheritance			See Language page
night	noche	noite	time	~jabi	~jabi	inheritance			See Language page
no/not	no	não	grammar	bã-	bã-	inheritance			See Language page
nose	nariz	nariz	body	~iguia	~iguia	inheritance			See Language page
old	viejo	velho	quality	bɨcɨgɨ (m.); bɨco (f.); bɨcɨa-rise (inanim.)	bɨcɨgɨ (m.); bɨco (f.); bɨcɨa-rise (inanim.)	inheritance			See Language page
one	uno	um	number	ko-	ko-	inheritance			See Language page
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	jãna-re	xãna-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
other	otro	outro	grammar	gãhĩ, gahé-	gãhĩ, gahé-	inheritance			See Language page
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body	to be in pain: jũni wisi-re; to hurt: jũni-rise	xũni wisi-ɾe; xũni-rise	inheritance			See Language page
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	~basɨ (m.); ~baso (f.)	~basɨ (m.); ~baso (f.)	inheritance			See Language page
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	baje-re (could be a loan from Portuguese); ja-re; roca-re ('to punch in the face') (entire lexical entry is identical with hit)	baxe-ɾe; xa-ɾe; ɾoka-ɾe				See Language page
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	to rain: ide quedi-rise, quedi-re	ide kedi-ɾise; kedi-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
red	rojo	vermelho	colour	~sua-rise	~sua-rise	inheritance			See Language page
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body	rioho-ka-dɨha	rioho-ka-dɨha	inheritance			See Language page
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	~ba	~ba	inheritance			See Language page
root	raíz	raiz	flora	~je-ba	~je-ba	inheritance			See Language page
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	similar: joga-rise 'to rot'	xoga-rise	inheritance			See Language page
sand	arena	areia	environment	ha	ha	inheritance			See Language page
say	decir	dizer	mental	ji-	ji-	inheritance			See Language page
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact	waje-re	waxe-ɾe	unknown			See Language page
see	ver	ver	mental	ti-re	ti-re	unique			See Language page
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	to be sharp: odi-rise	odi-ɾise	unknown			See Language page
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	jatu-re (with an arrow); jearua-re (with a fire arm; word contains jea 'fire'); juti-re (with a blow pipe)	xatu-ɾe; xeaɾua-ɾe; xuti-ɾe	unknown			See Language page
short	corto	curto	quality	to be short: ye-rise	je-ɾise	inheritance			See Language page
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	gãkõ-hoe	gãkõ-hoe	inheritance			See Language page
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental	bojo-re	boxo-ɾe	unknown			See Language page
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	ruji-re (identical with climb)	ɾuxi-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
skin	piel	pele	body	wi-ro	wi-ro	unique			See Language page
sky	cielo	céu	environment	macarᵾcᵾro	makaɾɨkɨɾo	unknown			See Language page
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	~kadi-re	~kadi-re	inheritance			See Language page
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	~bɨtaka; habitire	~bɨtaka; habitire	unknown			See Language page
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	bueri	bueri	inheritance			See Language page
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	sᵾti-rise (intransitive); wĩji-re (intransitive); ʉ̃ñi-re (probably intransitive)	sɨti-ɾise; wĩxi-ɾe; ɨ̃ji-ɾe	unknown; inheritance		primarily transitive	See Language page
spit	escupir	cuspir	body	eo bate-re (second constituent seems similar to the Portuguese verb bater 'to beat, hit, pound'; cf. Macuna baje-re)	eo bate-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	boje-re (identical with cut/hack)	boxe-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	bije-re; tʉacã-re (esp. yuca)	bixe-ɾe; tɨakã-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact	hio-	hio-	inheritance			See Language page
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	rʉ̃gõ-re	ɾɨ̃gõ-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
star	estrella	estrela	environment	~jokoa-gã	~jokoa-gã	inheritance			See Language page
steal	robar	roubar	other	ẽma-re	ẽma-ɾe	inheritance	see Secoya		See Language page
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	gũmu; 'wacʉ (used for dancing)	gũmu; 'wakɨ	loan; unknown	WW kumu log, signal drum, canoe		See Language page
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	~gɨtaga	~gɨtaga	inheritance			See Language page
suck	chupar	chupar	body	udi-re (with a straw or something similar); ũju-re (esp. Breast milk)	udi-ɾe; ĩxu-ɾe	unknown			See Language page
sun	sol	sol	time	~ubakaji; ~ɨbɨa gagɨ	~ubakaji; ~ɨbɨa gagɨ	unknown			See Language page
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body	asi budi-re	asi budi-ɾe	inheritance?			See Language page
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	miji-re	mixi-ɾe	inheritance	cognate Siona?		See Language page
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	bati-re, ~ahu-re (underwater)	bati-re, ~ahu-re (underwater)	inheritance			See Language page
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	~hiko	~hiko	inheritance			See Language page
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar	~i (m.); iso (f.)	~i (m.); iso (f.)	inheritance			See Language page
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	to be thick: jair-ise (seems similar to jai-re 'to grow'); webʉti-rise	xai-rise; webɨti-ɾise	unknown			See Language page
thin	delgado	fino	quality	jʉ̃a jedi-re 'to be thin'	xɨ̃a xed-iɾe	unknown			See Language page
think	pensar	pensar	mental	tʉoɨ̃a-re	tɨoɨ̃a-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
this	este/esta	este	grammar	~adi (m.); adio (f.)	~adi (m.); adio (f.)	inheritance			See Language page
three	tres	tres	number	ɨdia-	ɨdia-	inheritance			See Language page
throat	garganta	garganta	body	ãmʉma yurajʉ; ãcũ yurama	ãmɨma juɾaxɨ; ãkũ juɾama	inheritance			See Language page
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	jatu-re (identical with shoot); rea-re	xatu-ɾe; ɾea-ɾe	unknown			See Language page
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	semantically similar: bʉjo 'thunderstorm' (cf. lightning) and ja-re 'to thunder' (cf. hit, pound/beat)	bɨxo; xa-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	sia-re	sia-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	~jebe-ro	~jebe-ro	inheritance			See Language page
tooth	diente	dente	body	guhi-ga	guhi-ga	inheritance			See Language page
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other	jᵾda-re (transitive)	xɨda.ɾe	unique		may be transitive or intransitive	See Language page
two	dos	dois	number	hɨa-	hɨa-	inheritance			See Language page
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	mᵾño-re	mɨjo-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	wa-re	wa-re	inheritance			See Language page
water	agua	agua	environment	ide	ide	unique			See Language page
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	wea-	wea-	inheritance			See Language page
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	~je	~je	inheritance			See Language page
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	dõ kãtã	dõ kãtã	inheritance			See Language page
where?	donde	onde	grammar	dõ-hɨ̃	dõ-hɨ̃	inheritance			See Language page
white	blanco	branco	colour	boti-rise	boti-rise	inheritance			See Language page
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	~jibɨ/~di (m.); ~jibo/diso (f.)	~jibɨ/~di (m.); ~jibo/diso (f.)	inheritance			See Language page
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	manojo	manoxo	inheritance			See Language page
wind	viento	vento	environment	mino	mino	inheritance			See Language page
wing	ala	asa	body	caero	kaeɾo	inheritance			See Language page
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	~robio	~robio	inheritance			See Language page
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	moa-re	moa-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body	yawᵾti-re	jawɨti-ɾe	inheritance			See Language page
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	bodea-rise	bodea-rise	doubtful loan	Witotoan (in Desano, Siriano, Macuna)		See Language page


1pl.excl
1pl.incl
1sg
2pl
2sg
3pl
3sg
above
again
all
and
ankle
armpit
ash
at
back
bad
bark
belly
below
big
bite
black
blood
blow
boil/pimple
bone
breast
breathe
burn
chew
child
climb
cloud
cold
come
cook
correct/true
count
cry
cut/hack
day
die/be dead
dig
dingo/wolf
dirty
dream
drink
dry
dull/blunt
dust
ear
earth/soil
eat
egg
eye
faeces
fall
far
fat/grease
father
fear
feather
fingernail
fire
flow
flower
fly
fog
foot
fruit
good
green
grow
hair (of head)
hand
head
hear
heart
heavy
hide
hit
hold
hot
how?
if
in/inside
intestines
itch
kill
know/be knowledgeable
lake
laugh
leaf
left/left hand
leg/foot
lie down
lightning
live/be alive
liver
long
louse
lung
man/male
meat/flesh
moon
mother
mountain/hill
mouth
name
nape
near/close
neck
new
night
no/not
nose
old
one
open/uncover
other
pain/painful/sick
person/human being
pound/beat
rain
red
right/right hand
road/path
root
rotten
sand
say
scratch
see
sharp
shoot
short
shoulder
shy/ashamed
sit
skin
sky
sleep
small
smoke
sniff/smell
spit
split
squeeze
stab/pierce
stand
star
steal
stick/wood
stone
suck
sun
sweat
swell
swim
tail
that
thick
thin
think
this
three
throat
throw
thunder
tie up/fasten
tongue
tooth
turn
two
vomit
walk
water
wet
what?
when?
where?
white
who?
wife
wind
wing
woman/female
work
yawn
yellow

Showing 1 to 191 of 191 entries

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Loan Source	Source	Distribution	General Notes
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana	abujumujariyocʉ (tree), musa	bũsã (H&R), abuxumuxaɾiyokɨ (tɾee), musa		inheritance		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	shrub
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	bu	bu		inheritance		See Language page
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	gʉso, jea gʉso (constituent jea means 'fire/firewood'), ria gʉso	gɨso, xɛa gɨso, ria gɨso		inheritance		See Language page	Throughout Amazonia	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis				missing		See Language page	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia	ʉye	ɨyɛ		inheritance		See Language page	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	a tree; not a true grape
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes	jĩno	xĩno, hĩdõ				See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	barewamʉ, rãjua, wãsiamʉ	baɾɛwamɨ, lãxua, wãsiamɨ		unknown		See Language page
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae	bẽkã-bɨ̃	bẽkã-bɨ̃				See Language page
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)	bʉco	bɨko		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	jãmogã	hãbõ-gã, xãmogã		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread in Amazonia
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum	joragʉ (for fishing), yiru	xolagɨ (fol fishing), yilu, bĩbĩ-rẽ				See Language page	tropical regions, especially river banks	plant
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana	ũñu	ũɲu				See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.				missing		See Language page	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.	ojo	oxo, oho		semantic shift?	Chacon 2013: markedness shift from sororoca	See Language page		Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.	oso	oso		inheritance		See Language page
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.	cũmana	kũmana		loan - WW	%kumana	See Language page		plant
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		bĩdĩ	bĩdĩ		inheritance		See Language page
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala						See Language page	secondary forests, native to Brazil	tree
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba						See Language page	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	beco	beko		inheritance		See Language page
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae	jĩno	xĩno, hĩdõ		inheritance		See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	coa ('calabaza', Smothermon dict)	koa				See Language page	indigenous gardens	plant; tree
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']						See Language page	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	tree
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha	seu (R95)	seu (R95)		inheritance		See Language page
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata				missing		See Language page
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	jogoro	xogoɾo		inheritance		See Language page
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris	ria wekɨ	ria wekɨ		inheritance		See Language page
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.				missing		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	plant
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum	sõna	sõna		inheritance		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda	muni	muni				See Language page
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea	idire	idilɛ		unknown		See Language page
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.						See Language page	secondary forest, floodplain	vine
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca	caji	kaxi, kahi		unknown	shared Barasano; compare kaapi	See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	plant
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria	jarawa, jarewa	xaɾawa, xaɾɛwa		loan - WW	%arawe	See Language page
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu	yese	jese		inheritance		See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua				missing		See Language page
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)	jɨta	jɨta		semantic shift	original meaning kapok	See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura	gãjigã	gãxigã		inheritance		See Language page
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae	jorero, ñeteamʉ, ñimiamʉ	xolɛlo, ɲɛtɛamɨ, ɲimiamɨ		inheritance		See Language page
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.	rũhĩ	rũhĩ		inheritance		See Language page	Amazonia
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	ñama, ñama sũagũ	jãbã, ɲama, ɲama sũagũ		inheritance		See Language page
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	ecarʉ yai, yai	eka-rɨ jai, ɛcaɾɨ yai, yai		semantic shift/calque	from jaguar + ?	See Language page	Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis						See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae	buja	buxa		inheritance		See Language page
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family				missing		See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.	wadoa	wadoa		unknown		See Language page
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus	bue (generic)	buɛ (gɛnɛɾic)		inheritance		See Language page
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae				missing		See Language page
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		wai	wai		inheritance		See Language page
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.	cũra	kũna		loan	Arawak (prob. Baniwa)	See Language page	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	shrub/tree
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	rʉ̃gõmeamʉ	lɨ̃gõmɛamɨ, boboroa (H&R)		inheritance		See Language page
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana				missing		See Language page	widespread lowland SA	shrub
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis	tĩmi	tĩbĩ, tĩmi				See Language page
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)	ta	ta		inheritance		See Language page
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans				missing		See Language page	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba	yaje (heron)	yaxɛ (hɛron)		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread South America
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti						See Language page
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.	kata	kata		inheritance		See Language page	Different types have different localized ranges
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola						See Language page
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi	káhi idi-re	káhi idi-re		loan - WW	%kaapi	See Language page	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	vine
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae	gajagʉ	gaxagɨ		doubtful loan	Yucuna kapana, Nheengatu karipira	See Language page
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	mumidʉ, beroamʉ	mumidɨ, beɾoamɨ, beroabɨkɨ (H&R)		inheritance		See Language page
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus						See Language page
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens	bia	bia		inheritance		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	plant
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]	ugʉ. ug (R95)	ugɨ		inheritance		See Language page
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	mimi	mimi, bĩbĩ		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.	jua-boro	jua-boro		inheritance		See Language page		iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.				missing		See Language page	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic						See Language page
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	yai (general term)	yai (general term), jai		doubtful loan into protolanguage, direction unknown	Arawak (Chacon reconstructs); cf. TG *jawar	See Language page
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura						See Language page		large tree
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra						See Language page	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	tree
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae	ñasa	ɲasa		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.				missing		See Language page
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.	maja	maxa, bãhã		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	ojorica	oxolika, oho-rika		semantic shift (in protolg?)	from banana; cf. Hup, Bora	See Language page	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	plant
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.						See Language page
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.	wajega	waxɛga				See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	quĩ	kĩ		inheritance		See Language page	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta				missing		See Language page	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa				missing		See Language page	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	trunks contain sago-like starch
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	ʉsicamʉ; mʉte	ɨsikamɨ; mɨte, bɨ̃tẽã-bɨ̃ (H&R)		unknown; inheritance		See Language page
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera						See Language page
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus	bi	bi		inheritance		See Language page
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)	abujutoa	abuxutoa		inheritance		See Language page		prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis				missing		See Language page
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae	oa	oa		doubtful loan into protolanguage, direction unknown	Tikuna	See Language page
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes	bʉjogabo, bʉricatu	bɨxogabo, bɨrikatu		doubtful loan into protolg - WW? onomatopoeic?	%pupu	See Language page	Widespread
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)	sẽme	sẽbẽ, sɛ̃mɛ		inheritance		See Language page
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.	ujuga	uxuga				See Language page
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana				missing		See Language page	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	palm
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica	weco	wɛko		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea				missing		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes	~ɨde	~ɨde	pupunha palm			Chacon 2014: Appendix A
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea						See Language page		plant
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus	sẽnagã	sɛ̃nagã		inheritance	possibly from TG nana?	See Language page		plant
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae	bũjũ-gã	bũjũ-gã		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae	wada sẽme	wada sɛ̃mɛ		doubtful loan (into protolg?)	Carib, cf. Wai Wai waaro, also Yukuna walo	See Language page
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum						See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	ñaji	ɲaxi, jãhĩ		inheritance		See Language page		plant
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae	yase	yasɛ				See Language page
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.						See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	tree
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones	cotiwaj̃a	kotiwax̃a		inheritance		See Language page
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua						See Language page	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia	may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.	quereca	kɛɾɛka				See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata	yua (general lizard)	jua (general lizard)		inheritance		See Language page
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda				missing		See Language page
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		ãña	ãɲa, ãjã		inheritance		See Language page
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox	ãña sirgʉ (crótalo), gajoabo (taya equis)	ãɲa siɾgɨ (cɾótalo), gaxoabo (taya equis), ãjã siri-gɨ (H&R)				See Language page	Widespread South America
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.						See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae	bʉjʉ	bɨxɨ, bɨhɨ		inheritance		See Language page
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.	coa [?]	koa [?]		unknown	prob. Crescentia	See Language page		plant
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae	ñisocã, ũisocã (red squirrel)	ɲisokã, ũisokã (red squirrel)		inheritance		See Language page
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.				missing		See Language page
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.	ñamo	ɲamo, jãbõ				See Language page
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	wecʉ	wɛkɨ, wekɨ		inheritance		See Language page
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera	adamabocomicʉ	adamabokomikɨ, butua-bɨ̃		inheritance		See Language page
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea	gãjisĩa, gãjisʉa	gãxisĩa, gãxisɨa		unknown	cf. Arawak	See Language page
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.	pawa, sai	pawa, sai				See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae	gãjagã	gãxagã		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	tarobʉcʉa (grande)	talobɨkɨa (gɾande), taro-bɨkɨ				See Language page
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum	mʉno	mɨno, bɨ̃dõ		inheritance		See Language page		plant
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	guga, gusiria	guga, gusilia		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.	lasɛ, rase (H&R)	lasɛ, rase (H&R)		doubtful loan into protolanguage	North Arawak	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		jukɨgɨ	jukɨgɨ		inheritance		See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella	gaque josu, wau; gaqué-gaqué (R95)	gake, gakɛ xosu, wau		inheritance		See Language page
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui						See Language page	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae	yuca	juka		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread South America
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita	utia	utia		inheritance		See Language page
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons	gaquejosé (R95)	gakehosé (R95)		unknown		See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus	cuata (R95)	wau		inheritance; loan - WW	%kowata	See Language page
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari				missing		See Language page
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae	cõne	kõnɛ		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia

Showing 1 to 133 of 133 entries

Cultural Vocabulary (97)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology						See Language page
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	yirugʉ	jirugʉ	inheritance		hunting, warfare	See Language page
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	cocõmea (cõmea - ax)	kokõmɛa (kõmɛa - ax)	inheritance		especially for clearing fields	See Language page
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool					can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material			missing			See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	jibʉ (thin knit)	xibɨ (thin knit)	unknown			See Language page
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material	jicobʉ, jicuga (small and knit compactly by women) sʉoga (for carrying fish)	xikobɨ, xikuga (small and knit compactly by women) sɨoga (for carrying fish)				See Language page
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material			missing			See Language page
bed	cama	cama	culture-material	hesa-do	hesa-do	unknown	calque?		See Language page
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	cũmurõ	kũmuɾõ	loan - WW	%kumu		See Language page
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool	bujaga	buxaga	inheritance		currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool	waca	waka				See Language page
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation						See Language page
bottom grinding stone			manufacture					if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	jatura jãi, jaturijĩ	xatuɾa xãi, xatulixĩ	unknown		arco	See Language page
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material			missing			See Language page
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	cũma	kũma	loan - WW	%kumu		See Language page
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	pisana	pisana	loan - WW	%pisana		See Language page
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	cara	kara	loan - WW	%kara		See Language page
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	ʉjʉ	ʉjʉ	inheritance?	cf. %apu		See Language page
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	yutabaju, yutabuju	yutabaxu, yutabuxu	semantic shift	from 'cotton'		See Language page
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool						See Language page
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology					malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool	jeaje, waca	xɛaxɛ, waka			hunting and warfare	See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology			missing		In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool						See Language page
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	wʉjo	wʉho				See Language page
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology	bu toti, jukɨ toti	bu toti, jukɨ toti	loan - WW	%toto (onomatopoeic?)		See Language page
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture			missing		Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool	wẽniro	wɛ̃nilo	inheritance		esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology						See Language page
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other			missing		may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture	idire	idiɾe	inheritance?		prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology						See Language page
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other						See Language page
firewood	leña	lenha	other	jea	xɛa	inheritance			See Language page
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food			missing			See Language page
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	wai jore	wai xolɛ				See Language page
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool						See Language page
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool	tuga	tuga				See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food	bedero, naju, ʉ̃jʉri	bɛdɛlo, naxu, ɨ̃xɨli	unique; inheritance		usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food	naju gatere	naxu gatɛɾɛ	unique		agriculture	See Language page
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology	tẽroraga	tẽɾoɾaga	inheritance		multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food	waibʉcʉ (edible animal)	waibɨkɨ (edible animal)	inheritance		Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	ghost: rʉ̃mʉ; ʉsi; ghost of a dead person: wʉjo	ɾɨ̃mɨ; ɨsi; wɨxo	unknown			See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	coa ('calabaza', Smothermon dict)	koa	inheritance?			See Language page
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool	sõgõro	sõgõno	inheritance		esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology						See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool			missing			See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool	gataro	gatalo	inheritance		agriculture?	See Language page
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	jeaga	xeaga	calque	from 'fire'		See Language page
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	jũgʉ̃	xũgɨ̃	inheritance			See Language page
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	sapewa	sapewa	loan	Port chapeu		See Language page
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology					Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics						See Language page
honey	miel	mel	food			missing		only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page
house			other	wi	wi	inheritance			See Language page
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	rʉ̃nʉ-	rʉ̃nʉ-				See Language page
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	wajara jãi	waxaɾa xãi	unique			See Language page
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress	wasoro	wasoro				See Language page
machete	machete	facão	culture-material	yoara jãi, yoarijĩ	yoaɾa xãi, yoalixĩ	inheritance	shared Wanano		See Language page
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool			missing			See Language page
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	wea-rã-hãĩ	wea-rã-hãĩ	inheritance			See Language page
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology	gʉ̃nañi, gʉ̃nañe, we (black)	gɨ̃naɲi, gɨ̃naɲɛ, wɛ (black)				See Language page
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology						See Language page
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	papera	papera	loan	Span/Port 'papel'		See Language page
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool						See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other						See Language page
plate	plato	prato	culture-material			missing			See Language page
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation						See Language page
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	sotʉ	sotɨ	inheritance			See Language page
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology	ñasagã	jasagã	inheritance			See Language page
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool			missing			See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology						See Language page
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	bĩsĩ-bã, hũ gɨbo	bĩsĩ-bã, hũ gɨbo	inheritance			See Language page
salt	sal	sal	food	moa	moa	inheritance/sem shift?			See Language page
school	escuela	escola	acculturation						See Language page
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology	cũmu	kũmu	loan - WW	%kumu	In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress						See Language page
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material			missing			See Language page
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation			missing			See Language page
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology	basa	basa	inheritance			See Language page
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	rocaragʉ, sareragʉ	lokaɾagɨ, saɾɛɾagɨ	unique			See Language page
spearthrower			subsistence tool						See Language page
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food	bede	bɛdɛ	inheritance			See Language page
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material						See Language page
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	mimi yucʉ	mimi yukʉ				See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food	cãmu	kãmu	loan, direction unknown	Arawak (Baniwa)	agriculture	See Language page
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology						See Language page
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material			missing			See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food	jĩnomʉ	jĩnomʉ	inheritance		word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture					use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool	ñama	ñama			agriculture	See Language page
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool	rĩma	lĩma	inheritance	cf. %namo	hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page
wax	cera	cera	other			missing			See Language page
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	bijeraga (for manioc), sʉaraga	bixɛɾaga (foɾ manioc), sɨaɾaga	inheritance?; inheritance		agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology	tʉ̃tʉ (agamí trompeta)	tɨ̃tɨ (agamí trompeta)			a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page

Showing 1 to 97 of 97 entries

Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source	General Notes
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33-36
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43	agglutinative
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.38
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33-35
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33-35
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.31	only one prefix; du- 'hacer al revés'
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.31
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.31
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993	not indicated/expected
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993	not indicated/expected
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43-47
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.42
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	2		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.31-32
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993,
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993,
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993,
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993,
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993,
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33-36
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33-36
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33-36
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	yes	For the first person plural personal pronouns, we distinguish the inclusive and exclusive pronouns.	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.47
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	yes	3 for inaminates (dist., prox., med.) and 2 for animates (dist., prox.)	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p. 33
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	2	Animate (4) and Inanimate	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33-35
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes	140 commonly used	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.37
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.34
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33	animate/inanimate
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35	Third person pronouns distinguish masculine and the feminine singular and plural.
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33-36
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.37
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.40	possibly partial (check)
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.39
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35	verb + gender-number classifier = noun
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.34
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes	-a (anim.), -ri (inanimate)	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.34
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.34
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.34
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.34
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.34
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33-36
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33-36
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.39
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	yes	base-5 until 20 (then x20)	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.39	hɨa- 'two' and hɨa-ria 'two-plural'
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.39
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.39
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.39
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.39
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.39
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993	no info/not expected
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993	no info/not expected
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.36
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35	Macuna contains personal, interogative, demonstrative, indefinite, and reflexive pronouns.
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.41
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.41
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35	animate and inanimate
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33-42
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no	no info/not to be expected	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.33-42
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.36-40	Genitive constructions are formed by a noun or pronoun possessor head noun plus noun phrase (the possessed). The owner usually precedes the possessed. When the genitive construction relates to family relationships or intimate possession, there is no genit
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.36-40
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.36-40
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.36-40
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.40
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.40-41
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.40-41
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.40-41
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.40-41
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.40
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.40-41
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon p.46	prenasalization
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no	no info/not expected	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p. 24
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.26	not indicated/expected
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993,p. 23,28-29	some opinions that vowel length is phonemic. Elongated vowels only occur in final break in the data collected and seem to focus, rest or hesitation.
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.24-26	not indicated/expected
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p. 26
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	yes	(C)V	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p. 26	glottal stop only
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p. 26
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	yes	2; high and low	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p. 27	Animal parts and human parts are distinguished only by tonal differences.
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p. 28	property of morpheme
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	yes	Progressive and regressive in the phonological word.	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p. 28	Until stopped by an intrinsically oral suffix.
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.26	The vowel /e/ varies freely between [e] and [ɛ].
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.31
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.31
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.31
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.31
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.31-33
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43-46
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43-46
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43-	(no info/not expected)
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43-46	(possible/likely; but provide evidence/example)
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64-65	not indicated/expected
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.61	replaces other suffixes
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.61
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.61
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.61
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.61
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.60
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.60
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.60	shortened versions also used (-be/bi)
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.60
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.60	shortened versions also used (bã)
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.60	scarce info.
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.60	scarce info.
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.60	scarce info.
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.68
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.68	not indicated/expected (order dependent with subject final position)
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.68
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.44
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.44
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43	no info/not expected
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.41-42
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.41-42
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no info	not enough info.	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.30, 68
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		no	Verb used in relative clause takes on markers (not	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.41-42	embedded relative clauses
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.41-42
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43-44
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.45
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.45
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.45-47	no info/not expected
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.45-47
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.45-47
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.40	possession is determined by word order or genitive 'ja' (which takes the same person-marking affixes)
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.45
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.45
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.45	(check this)
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35,64
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64	no info/not expected
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43-46
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no info		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.43-44	no info/not expected
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64	no info/not expected
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64	no info/not expected
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64	no info/not expected
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.49
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.49
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.54
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.55
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.48-55
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.48-55
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.48-55
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.48-55
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.42
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.47	Evidential categories including witnessed, heard, inferred, reporting, conjecture, and future.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.47	heard (but not seen)
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.50
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	yes	Formed using the deductive suffix -ji plus a suffix for person/number/gender.	Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.51
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.47
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.47	Evidential categories including witnessed, heard, inferred, reporting, conjecture, and future.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.47-52
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.47-52
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.47-52
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.47-52
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.62
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.62-64
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.60
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.62
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64, 70	not indicated but source is limited
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.57
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.64-70
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.47
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.59-60
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.47-52	no info/not expected
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.47
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no		Smotheron 1993, p.31	In general, the relative clauses and other nominal modifiers follow the noun, but may vary from this position and precede it.
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.44
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		yes		Smotheron 1993, p.31	subject may appear clause initial also; focus
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	no		Smotheron 1993, p.31
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	yes		Smotheron 1993, p.31
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.42
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.42
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.40	genitive takes classifier
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.40
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.37-42
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.37-42
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36, 40
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.35-36, 40	can exist when noun is focus
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.39
Word Order	Noun-Num		no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.39
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.41
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.41
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.41	The relative clause is a verb-noun embedded clause, which modifies the head noun of the noun phrase.
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.41
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Smothermon & Smothermon 1993, p.61

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						Linguistic exogamy

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