Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Tanimuca

Family: Tukanoan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: tnc
Location: -0.59°, -70.39°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information

Data Sources: Chacon, Thiago. 2014. A Revised Proposal of Proto-Tukanoan Consonants and Tukanoan Family Classification. International Journal of American Linguistics 80.3: 275-322. Gaviria, Sofia Victoria and Luis José Azcárate. 1979. Fonología y lexicología de la lengua tanimuka. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes, Facultad de Artes y Ciencias, Departamento de Antropología. Huber, R.; Reed, R. 1992. Comparative vocabulary: selected words in indigenous languages of Colombia. Instituto Linguistico de Verano. Mountain, Kathy. 1978. Lista de Palabras Swadesh y Rowe. Linguística y Campos Apines. Anderson, Martha y Bonnie Brobston, eds. Rodriguez, José Vicente, compiler, and others. 1995. Mamíferos colombianos: sus nombres comunes e indígenas. Bogotá: Conservation International, Fundación Mario Santo Domingo. Strom, Clay. 1992. Retuarã Syntax. (Summer Institute of Linguistics: Publications in Linguistics, 112.) The Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. (Studies in the Indigenous Languages of Colombia 3).

Basic Vocabulary (191)

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	pẽ'bã rõ'õ 'pi	pẽ'bã rõ'õ 'pi	unknown			See Language page
and	y	e	grammar						See Language page
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	ũã	ũã	inheritance			See Language page
at	en, a	em, a	location						See Language page
back	espalda	costas	body	pẽ'tea	pẽ'tea	unique			See Language page
bad	mal	mal	quality	ba'i 'ka	ba'i 'ka	unique			See Language page
belly	barriga	barriga	body	jẽʔbẽ-ã	jẽʔbẽ-ã	missing			See Language page
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location			missing			See Language page
big	grande	grande	quality	hoʔba 'ka	hoʔba 'ka	unique			See Language page
black	negro	preto	colour	dẽ'ĩã	dẽ'ĩã	inheritance			See Language page
blood	sangre	sangue	body	ri'bea	ri'bea	inheritance			See Language page
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body			missing			See Language page
bone	hueso	osso	body	ũʔ'ã	ũʔ'ã	inheritance			See Language page
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	kã'rĩbã 'kia (chest); ũ'pea (breast)	kã'rĩbã 'kia (chest); ũ'pea (breast)	inheritance			See Language page
child	niño, niña	criança	human	bẽʔ'rõ (girl); bẽʔ'rĩ (boy); 'bãkĩ 're (boy); bẽʔ'rã 'ka (children)	bẽʔ'rõ (girl); bẽʔ'rĩ (boy); 'bãkĩ 're (boy); bẽʔ'rã 'ka (children)	inheritance			See Language page
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment	oko u'bãkaka	oko u'bãkaka	inheritance			See Language page
cold	frío	frio	quality	hi'hia (fem.)	hi'hia (fem.)	inheritance			See Language page
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality	ri'ta	ri'ta	unique			See Language page
day	día	dia	time	ĩ'bĩã	ĩ'bĩã	inheritance			See Language page
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	ka'i-ka	kaʔi-ka	unique			See Language page
dingo/wolf			fauna						See Language page
dry	seco	seco	quality	we'i i'taka	we'i i'taka	inheritance			See Language page
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality	ro'dyea	ro'ʎea				See Language page
dust	polvo	poeira	environment	kaʔ'i u'dyua	kaʔ'i u'ʎua				See Language page
ear	oreja	orelha	body	ãʔ'bũã	ãʔ'bũã	inheritance			See Language page
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	kaʔ'ia	kaʔ'ia	unique			See Language page
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	sa ri'a	sa ri'a	inheritance			See Language page
eye	ojo	olho	body	dyãʔ'kõã	ʎãʔ'kõã	inheritance			See Language page
far	lejos	longe	quality	dyo'e 'rã	ʎo'e 'rã	inheritance			See Language page
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	ijeba-ka	ijeba-ka	inheritance			See Language page
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	aʔ'bi; 'paki 're	aʔ'bi; 'paki 're	unique; inheritance			See Language page
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	po'dya	po'ʎa	inheritance			See Language page
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	pe'ka	pe'ka	inheritance			See Language page
flower	flor	flor	environment	õ'õ ri'ka	õ'õ ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment	rã'bãsi-ka	rã'bãsi-ka				See Language page
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	õ'te ri'kia	õ'te ri'kia	inheritance			See Language page
good	bueno	bom	quality	hi'a	hi'a	unique			See Language page
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	po'dya	po'ʎa	inheritance			See Language page
hand	mano	mão	body	pi'ta 'ka	pi'ta 'ka	inheritance	shared W. Tuk		See Language page
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	i'ki (he); i'ko (she)	i'ki (he); i'ko (she)	inheritance			See Language page
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	ru'pu ko'a	ru'pu ko'a	inheritance			See Language page
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	rĩʔ'kĩã; riʔ'ki i'taka	rĩʔ'kĩã; riʔ'ki i'taka	inheritance			See Language page
how?	como	como	grammar	bãrãkãʔ'ã	bãrãkãʔ'ã	unique			See Language page
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	dyiʔ'i	ʎiʔ'i	inheritance		For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms	See Language page
if	si	se	grammar						See Language page
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	tõ'si rõ'õ 'rã	tõ'si rõ'õ 'rã	unique			See Language page
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	ita-'pisi-a	ita-'pisi-a	inheritance			See Language page
lake	lago	lago	environment	pa'wa	pa'wa	unique			See Language page
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	pũ'dyũã	pũ'ʎũã	inheritance			See Language page
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	kã'ko pẽrõ'tõ 'pi	kã'ko pẽrõ'tõ 'pi	inheritance			See Language page
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	dyĩkã	ʎĩkã	inheritance			See Language page
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	bɨ'pó ja'bé-rí-he	bɨ'pó ja'bé-rí-he	inheritance	cf. thunder		See Language page
liver	hígado	figado	body	kaʔ'sia	kaʔ'sia	unique			See Language page
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	dyõ'ã 'ka; dyõ'ã I'taka	ʎõ'ã 'ka; ʎõ'ã i'taka	inheritance			See Language page
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	ĩʔ'ĩã	ĩʔ'ĩã	inheritance		order Phtiraptera	See Language page
man/male	hombre	homem	human	ĩ'bĩ rĩ'hĩ	ĩ'bĩ rĩ'hĩ	inheritance			See Language page
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	riʔ'ia	riʔ'ia	inheritance			See Language page
moon	luna	lua	environment	aidya'ka	aiʎa'ka	unique			See Language page
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	bãʔ'ĩ; pa'kore; 'pako 're	bãʔ'ĩ; pa'kore; 'pako 're	inheritance			See Language page
mouth	boca	boca	body	ri'ho ko'pea	ri'ho ko'pea	inheritance			See Language page
name	nombre	nome	human	wã'bẽã	wã'bẽã	loan into protolanguage, direction unknown	Boran, Witotoan, Tukanoan		See Language page
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	wãʔ'tãrã	wãʔ'tãrã	unknown			See Language page
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body						See Language page
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	wã'bũ ro'ka	wã'bũ ro'ka	inheritance			See Language page
new	nuevo	novo	quality	bã'bã I'taka	bã'bã I'taka	inheritance			See Language page
night	noche	noite	time	dyã'bĩã	ʎã'bĩã	inheritance			See Language page
no/not	no	não	grammar	he dõʔ'õ	he dõʔ'õ	unique			See Language page
nose	nariz	nariz	body	õ'bẽã	õ'bẽã	unique			See Language page
old	viejo	velho	quality	pakia 'ko (fem); 'pakia 'ki (masc); biki'haka (inan.)	pakia 'ko (fem); 'pakia 'ki (masc); biki'haka (inan.)	inheritance			See Language page
one	uno	um	number	ĩʔ'rõ	ĩʔ'rõ	unique			See Language page
other	otro	outro	grammar	aʔ'pea	aʔ'pea	inheritance			See Language page
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body	hĩ'dyũ 'ki	hĩ'ʎũ 'ki	inheritance			See Language page
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	põʔĩbã-hã 'people'	põʔĩbã-hã 'people'	inheritance			See Language page
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	o'koa ha'dyua	o'koa ha'ʎua	inheritance			See Language page
red	rojo	vermelho	colour	hũ'ã 'ka; hũ'ã i'taka	hũ'ã 'ka; hũ'ã i'taka	inheritance			See Language page
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body	ri'ta pẽrõ'tõ 'pi	ri'ta pẽrõ'tõ 'pi	unknown			See Language page
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	bãʔ'ã	bãʔ'ã	inheritance			See Language page
root	raíz	raiz	flora	riʔkoa	riʔkoa	inheritance			See Language page
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	ra 'ba ri'ka	ra 'ba ri'ka	unique			See Language page
sand	arena	areia	environment	põ'sia	põ'sia	unique			See Language page
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	o'pi 'ki i'taka	o'pi 'ki i'taka	unknown			See Language page
short	corto	curto	quality	dyeʔ'ea; dyeʔ'ea I'taka	ʎeʔ'ea; ʎeʔ'ea i'taka	inheritance			See Language page
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	hĩ'hõã	hĩ'hõã	unique			See Language page
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental			missing			See Language page
skin	piel	pele	body	a'hea	a'hea	unknown			See Language page
sky	cielo	céu	environment	wehe-'pebã	wehe-'pebã	unique			See Language page
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	kũ'pa hĩ'ka	kũ'pa hĩ'ka	unique			See Language page
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	ũ'bã ka'ka	ũ'bã ka'ka	inheritance			See Language page
star	estrella	estrela	environment	tãʔ'pia	tãʔ'pia	unique			See Language page
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	ja'pu-a	ja'pu-a	unknown			See Language page
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	ã'ta	ã'ta	inheritance			See Language page
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	sa pĩ'koa	sa pĩ'koa	inheritance			See Language page
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar	iʔsi-a	iʔsi-a	inheritance			See Language page
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	ĩ'rã	ĩ'rã	inheritance			See Language page
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	rĩʔ'kĩã	rĩʔ'kĩã	unique			See Language page
thin	delgado	fino	quality	pi'rua	pi'rua	unknown			See Language page
this	este/esta	este	grammar	i'ko (fem); ĩʔ'rĩ (masc)	i'ko (fem); ĩʔ'rĩ (masc)	inheritance			See Language page
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	bĩ'ĩ	bĩ'ĩ	inheritance			See Language page
throat	garganta	garganta	body	wã'bũ tã'sia	wã'bũ tã'sia	inheritance			See Language page
three	tres	tres	number	bã'ẽ 'kãrã ka'o	bã'ẽ 'kãrã ka'o	unknown			See Language page
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	wĩ'põã	wĩ'põã	inheritance			See Language page
bite	morder	morder	body	ku'ku ri'ka	ku'ku ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
blow	soplar	soprar	body	pu'pu ri'ka (tobacco)	pu'pu ri'ka (tobacco)	inheritance			See Language page
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	dyia'ta ri'ka	ʎia'ta ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	ho'e ri'ka	ho'e ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body	dyãʔ'kĩ ri'ka	ʎãʔ'kĩ ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
climb	subir	subir	motion	bĩ'ã ri'ka	bĩ'ã ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
come	venir	vir	motion	iʔ'ta ri'ka	iʔ'ta ri'ka	unknown			See Language page
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	ho'e ri'ka (to grill/ asar); dyo'a ri'ka	ho'e ri'ka (to grill/ asar); ʎo'a ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
count	contar	contar	mental	bo'ha ri'ka	bo'ha ri'ka	unique			See Language page
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	o'ri ri'ka	o'ri ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	taʔ'te ri'ka; to'a ri'ka	taʔ'te ri'ka; to'a ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	re'dya ri'ka (human); 'hĩ'rĩ ri'ka (animal)	re'ʎa ri'ka (human); 'hĩ'rĩ ri'ka (animal)	inheritance			See Language page
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	he'a-ri-ka	he'a-ri-ka	inheritance			See Language page
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	kãrũ'rũ 'rĩ ri'ka	kãrũ'rũ 'rĩ ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	u'ku ri'ka	u'ku ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
eat	comer	comer	body	baʔ'a ri'ka	baʔ'a ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
fall	caer	cair	motion	dyãʔ'ãrĩ ri'ka	ʎãʔ'ãrĩ ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
fear	miedo	medo	mental	kĩ'ki ri'ka	kĩ'ki ri'ka	unknown			See Language page
flow	fluir	fluir	motion	hu'ru-ri-ka	hu'ru-ri-ka	unknown			See Language page
fly	volar	voar	motion	ruʔ'ri ri'ka	ruʔ'ri ri'ka	unknown			See Language page
grow	crecer	crescer	state	bi'ki ri'ka	bi'ki ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	ã'bĩ ti'ri ri'ka	ã'bĩ ti'ri ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	dyaʔ'e bari ri'ka	ʎaʔ'e bari ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	pahe ri'ka	pahe ri'ka	unknown			See Language page
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	ri'ka-ri-ka	ri'ka-ri-ka	unique			See Language page
kill	matar	matar	impact	hã'ã ri'ka	hã'ã ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	õrĩ ri'ka	õrĩ ri'ka	unique			See Language page
laugh	reír	rir	mental			missing			See Language page
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	pãdyã ri'ka	pãʎã ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body			missing			See Language page
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	dyaʔ'a ri'ka	ʎaʔ'a ri'ka	unique			See Language page
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact			missing			See Language page
say	decir	dizer	mental	ãrĩ-ri-ka	ãrĩ-ri-ka	inheritance			See Language page
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact			missing			See Language page
see	ver	ver	mental	ĩã-	ĩã-	inheritance			See Language page
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	wadya 'ta ri'ka	waʎa 'ta ri'ka	unknown			See Language page
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	ru'pa ri'ka	ru'pa ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	kã'rĩ ri'ka	kã'rĩ ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	wĩʔ'ĩ ri'ka; hĩ'ã ri'ka	wĩʔ'ĩ ri'ka; hĩ'ã ri'ka	inheritance		primarily transitive	See Language page
spit	escupir	cuspir	body			missing			See Language page
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	waʔa-ri-ka	waʔa-ri-ka	inheritance			See Language page
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	tu'i ri'ka; bíʔ ke'be	tu'i ri'ka; bíʔ ke'be	inheritance; inheritance			See Language page
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact	sãke-ri-ka	sãke-ri-ka	unknown			See Language page
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	rĩkabã'ri-ri-ka	rĩkabã'ri-ri-ka	inheritance			See Language page
steal	robar	roubar	other	dyaʔ'e ri'ka	ʎaʔ'e ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
suck	chupar	chupar	body	biʔ'bi ri'ka; u'ku ri'ka	biʔ'bi ri'ka; u'ku ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	pi'pi ri'ka	pi'pi ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	barí ri'ka	barí ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
think	pensar	pensar	mental	pu'pa ho'a ri'ka	pu'pa ho'a ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	waja-'ta-ri-ka, 'ta-ri-ka	waja-'ta-ri-ka, 'ta-ri-ka	unique			See Language page
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	piʔ'pe ri'ka	piʔ'pe ri'ka	unique			See Language page
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other	õ'te ri'ka (trans); õ'si bi'I ri'ka (intrans, reflex)	õ'te ri'ka (trans); õ'si bi'I ri'ka (intrans, reflex)	unique		may be transitive or intransitive	See Language page
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	'po'po-ri-ka	'po'po-ri-ka	unique			See Language page
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	bẽʔpe	bẽʔpe	unique			See Language page
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	ba'irabo ri'ka	ba'irabo ri'ka	inheritance?			See Language page
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body	dyaʔ'ta ri'ka	ʎaʔ'ta ri'ka	unknown			See Language page
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	rẽ'rõ ka'ka	rẽ'rõ ka'ka	inheritance			See Language page
tooth	diente	dente	body	o'pia	o'pia	inheritance			See Language page
two	dos	dois	number	ĩʔpõ'õ	ĩʔpõ'õ	inheritance			See Language page
water	agua	agua	environment	o'koa	o'koa	inheritance			See Language page
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	bãrã	bãrã	inheritance		no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted	See Language page
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar	jiha	jiha	inheritance			See Language page
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	wiʔi-	wiʔi-	inheritance			See Language page
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	daʔko'a	daʔko'a	inheritance			See Language page
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	bãrã pa'ti	bãrã pa'ti	inheritance			See Language page
where?	donde	onde	grammar	dõʔ'õrã	dõʔ'õrã	inheritance			See Language page
white	blanco	branco	colour	bo'ia; bo'ia i'taka	bo'ia; bo'ia i'taka	inheritance			See Language page
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	bã 'ki	bã 'ki	inheritance			See Language page
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	ki 'rũbũ	ki 'rũbũ	inheritance			See Language page
wind	viento	vento	environment	wĩ'rõã	wĩ'rõã	inheritance			See Language page
wing	ala	asa	body	sa kã'hẽã	sa kã'hẽã	inheritance			See Language page
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	rõ'bõ	rõ'bõ	inheritance			See Language page
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	a're bo'sia; hũ'si po'a	a're bo'sia; hũ'si po'a	inheritance			See Language page
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	bĩhã	bĩhã	inheritance			See Language page
foot	pie	pé	body	ũʔ'pua	ũʔ'pua	inheritance			See Language page
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar			missing			See Language page
all	todo	todos	other	ri'taha	ri'taha	inheritance			See Language page
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body			missing			See Language page
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body			missing			See Language page
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body	iʔ'ta	iʔ'ta	inheritance			See Language page
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	wi'a	wi'a	unique			See Language page
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body			missing			See Language page
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body						See Language page
bark	corteza	casca	environment	dya'pu a'hea	ʎa'pu a'hea	unknown			See Language page
fingernail	uña	unha	body	bãbã'rãhẽã	bãbã'rãhẽã	inheritance			See Language page
heart	corazón	coração	body	õ'dyĩbã 'kia	õ'ʎĩbã 'kia	unknown			See Language page
sun	sol	sol	time	aidya'ka	aiʎa'ka	inheritance			See Language page
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	pu'sia	pu'sia	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Yagua		See Language page
green	verde	verde	quality	hĩʔ'bĩã	hĩʔ'bĩã	inheritance			See Language page
hot	caliente	quente	quality	I'hi I'taka; I'hi 'a	i'hi i'taka; i'hi 'a	inheritance			See Language page

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Loan Source	Source	Distribution	General Notes
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus						See Language page
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.	odyóa	oʎóa		inheritance		See Language page
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		wĩʔ'dyã 'ka; wĩʔ'dyã 'ka	wĩʔ'ʎã 'ka; wĩʔ'ʎã 'ka		inheritance	but cf. Tupi-Guarani	See Language page
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.	wẽ'jĩri-ka	wẽ'jĩri-ka		inheritance		See Language page	Amazonia
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.	dã'hẽã	dã'hẽã		doubtful loan into protolanguage	North Arawak	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans				missing		See Language page	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.	ku'dyuwika	ku'ʎuwika		loan - WW	%kujuwi / %kurutsi	See Language page	Different types have different localized ranges
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae	ã'kaka	ã'kaka		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	bĩrĩ pi'ka	bĩrĩ pi'ka		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae				missing		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes	pu'pe ti'ka	pu'pe ti'ka		doubtful loan into protolg - WW? onomatopoeic?	%pupu	See Language page	Widespread
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.	maa	maa		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica	pa'koro 'ka	pa'koro 'ka		loan - WW	%kuli, via Yucuna	See Language page	Widespread
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae	o'koi pa'koa	o'koi pa'koa		doubtful loan - WW	Yucuna, %motkuku	See Language page
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae	a'waka	a'waka		unique		See Language page
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae	wa'juri-ka	wa'juri-ka		loan - WW	Arawak	See Language page	Widespread South America
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family				missing		See Language page
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba	buʔ'dya bo'ia	buʔ'ʎa bo'ia		unique		See Language page	Widespread South America
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae				missing		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	wi'o pa'ki, dya'i 'we ko'a (dya'i 'tigre')	wi'o pa'ki		semantic shift/calque/loan w/in ET?	from jaguar + ?	See Language page	Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis						See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)	wẽ'ã 'ka	wẽ'ã 'ka		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	pa'bũ-ã	pa'bũ-ã		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread in Amazonia
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.						See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	kahu dya'ia ['caiman-jaguar'], kahu (Strom92)	kahu ʎa'ia ('caiman-jaguar'). kahu (Strom92)		loan	Yucuna kahju	See Language page	Throughout Amazonia	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus				missing		See Language page
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		waʔ'ia	waʔ'ia		inheritance		See Language page
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.	ua	ua				See Language page
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae	bũ'dyũã	bũ'ʎũã		inheritance		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.						See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.						See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.						See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	ũ'bã 'ka (frog); uru'uru riká (venemous toad)	ũ'bã 'ka (frog); uru'uru riká (venemous toad)				See Language page
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.	ju'adã-'ka	ju'adã-'ka		inheritance		See Language page		iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata	rupu dya'ia	rupu ʎa'ia		loan	Yucuna lupu	See Language page
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.				missing		See Language page
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura	ã'bĩã	ã'bĩã		inheritance		See Language page
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes	ã'jã-pakia-'ka	ã'jã-pakia-'ka				See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae	ã'jã-pakia-'ka	ã'jã-pakia-'ka		doubtful loan	Ashuar pangkí	See Language page
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		ã'dyã 'ka	ã'ʎã 'ka		inheritance		See Language page
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox	ri'a dyu'ia	ri'a ʎu'ia				See Language page	Widespread South America
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	o'ia (river); 'pare ki'ka (land)	o'ia (river); 'pare ki'ka (land)		doubtful loan, direction unknown	Andoke pádə	See Language page	Widespread
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis				missing		See Language page	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)	eʔ'toa; riho'o ri'ka (edible mushroom)	eʔ'toa; riho'o ri'ka (edible mushroom)		unknown		See Language page		prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba						See Language page	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.	pi'pi ri'ta hũ'kia	pi'pi ri'ta hũ'kia		inheritance		See Language page	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa	dẽ'ẽã ri'ka	dẽ'ẽã ri'ka		inheritance		See Language page	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	trunks contain sago-like starch
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana				missing		See Language page	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	palm
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea				missing		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes	~ire	~ire	pupunha palm			Chacon 2014: Appendix A
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua	dyõ'bĩ bã'kãra'ka	ʎõ'bĩ bã'kãra'ka				See Language page	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia	may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca	tã'ã pi'ka	tã'ã pi'ka		inheritance		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	plant
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)	jũʔ'ta-ka	jũʔ'ta-ka		semantic shift	original meaning kapok	See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra						See Language page	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	tree
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens	bi'a	bi'a		inheritance		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	plant
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea						See Language page		plant
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus	bã'ẽru'ka	bãẽru'ka		loan - WW	%mawino (from Yukuna)	See Language page		plant
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum	kãrã	kãrã				See Language page	tropical regions, especially river banks	plant
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.	pa'ru-a	pa'ru-a		loan	Carib, via Yucuna	See Language page		Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.				missing		See Language page		plant
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)	ta'dya	ta'ʎa		inheritance		See Language page
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	o'aka	o'aka		semantic shift (in protolg?)	from banana; cf. Hup, Bora	See Language page	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	plant
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum	bĩʔ'rõã	bĩʔ'rõã		inheritance		See Language page		plant
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		ĩ'bĩrã	ĩ'bĩrã		unique		See Language page
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana	bũ'ha	bũ'ha		inheritance		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	shrub
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.				missing		See Language page	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana	ũ'dyũã	ũ'ʎũã				See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala						See Language page	secondary forests, native to Brazil	tree
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']						See Language page	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	tree
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum				missing		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana				missing		See Language page	widespread lowland SA	shrub
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura						See Language page		large tree
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.	wã'hõã	wã'hõã				See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	tree
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui	pu'pa 'ka	pu'pa 'ka				See Language page	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia				missing		See Language page	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	a tree; not a true grape
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	kia	kia		inheritance		See Language page	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta				missing		See Language page	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum						See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	jãʔ'pi-a	jãʔ'pi-a		inheritance		See Language page		plant
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.	dyãʔ'bũã	dyãʔ'bũã				See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	plant
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.	dyãʔ'bũã	dyãʔ'bũã				See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	koʔ'a ('gourd', H&R)	koʔ'a ('gourd', H&R)				See Language page	indigenous gardens	plant; tree
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.				missing		See Language page		plant
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.						See Language page	secondary forest, floodplain	vine
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.	e'dyo bĩ'hĩã	e'ʎo bĩ'hĩã		inheritance		See Language page	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	shrub/tree
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi	ka'pi-a	ka'pi-a		loan - WW	%kaapi	See Language page	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	vine
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola						See Language page
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic						See Language page
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae						See Language page
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata	pã'ta 'ka; 'kãka	pã'ta 'ka; 'kãka		inheritance		See Language page
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.	bẽ'kã 'ka	bẽ'kã 'ka		inheritance		See Language page
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	bã'pã 'ka	bã'pã 'ka		loan	Arawak mapa	See Language page
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria	a'rowa'ka	a'rowa'ka		loan - WW	%arawe	See Language page
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae				missing		See Language page
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	tĩrã 'ka	tĩrã 'ka		unique		See Language page
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	bu'bu ti'ka	bu'bu ti'ka				See Language page
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	wã'hũã	wã'hũã		inheritance		See Language page
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda						See Language page
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones	kũãparãka	kũãparãka		unique		See Language page
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea				missing		See Language page
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	kõ'rẽ ri'ka	kõ'rẽ ri'ka		unique	metathesis?	See Language page
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	be'koa	be'koa		inheritance		See Language page
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae	dyĩ'bĩã	ʎĩ'bĩã		unique		See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.				missing		See Language page
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae						See Language page
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	bĩ'rĩã	bĩ'rĩã		inheritance		See Language page
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera	bu'tua	bu'tua		inheritance		See Language page
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea	o'dya 'ka	o'ʎa 'ka		unique		See Language page
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita	ũ'si wiʔ'ia	ũ'si wiʔ'ia		inheritance		See Language page
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda	koʔ'be ro'ka	koʔ'be ro'ka		doubtful loan	Arawak? see Cayapa; shared Cubeo	See Language page
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae	pi'pia	pi'pia		inheritance		See Language page
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	dya'ia (tigre)	ʎa'ia (tigre)		doubtful loan into protolanguage, direction unknown	Arawak (Chacon reconstructs); cf. TG *jawar	See Language page
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.						See Language page
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha	se'ra 'ka, tseraca (R95)	se'ra 'ka		inheritance		See Language page
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]	i'hi-a	i'hi-a		loan	Arawak, cf. Piapoco ìisi; s > h regular in Tanimuca	See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella	tankiya (R95)	tankija (R95)		inheritance		See Language page
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons	tanque boya (R95)	tanque boja (R95)		inheritance		See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus	cuhuatacá (R95)	kuwatacá (R95)		loan - WW	%kowata	See Language page
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae				missing		See Language page
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis	ria-'jaʔ'u-a	ria-'jaʔ'u-a				See Language page
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis	eʔ'sua	eʔ'sua		unique		See Language page
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu	hẽ'ka'pera-ka	hẽ'ka'pera-ka		unique		See Language page
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari	hẽ'hẽ-ã	hẽ'hẽ-ã		inheritance		See Language page
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae				missing		See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua				missing		See Language page
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	bu'i-a	bu'i-a		inheritance		See Language page
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris	ke'hu-a	ke'hu-a		inheritance		See Language page
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti						See Language page
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)	hẽ'bẽ-ã	hẽ'bẽ-ã		inheritance		See Language page
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus	beʔ'ia (rat)	beʔ'ia (rat)		inheritance		See Language page
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae	bẽ'rẽri'ka	bẽ'rẽri'ka		loan	Carib? via Yucuna	See Language page
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	wa'I wi'ki rã'kã	wa'I wi'ki rã'kã		inheritance		See Language page
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	dyã'bã 'ka (similar to tripod)	ʎã'bã 'ka		inheritance		See Language page

Cultural Vocabulary (97)

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	piʔ'ia	piʔ'ia	inheritance			See Language page
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material						See Language page
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material			missing			See Language page
bed	cama	cama	culture-material	kãrã-rũ'ki-a	kãrã-rũ'ki-a	missing			See Language page
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	pãũã	pãũã	inheritance			See Language page
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	ru'pari kũ'bũã	ru'pari kũ'bũã	inheritance			See Language page
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	kũ'bũã	kũ'bũã	loan - WW	%kumu		See Language page
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture			missing		Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology	japu-'taʔsi-a	japu-'taʔsi-a	unique			See Language page
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology	dye'e wi'ki	ʎe'e wi'ki	semantic shift?	from 'jaguar'?	In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology					Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material			missing			See Language page
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	ha'riro a'ka	ha'riro a'ka	inheritance			See Language page
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other			missing		may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page
firewood	leña	lenha	other	pe'ka	pe'ka	inheritance			See Language page
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology					malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology			missing			See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology			missing		In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology			missing		multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology						See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics						See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology						See Language page
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	wiʔ'ru pã'ĩã	wiʔ'ru pã'ĩã	inheritance			See Language page
machete	machete	facão	culture-material	saa'ra	saa'ra	loan - WW	%sipara/sapere		See Language page
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	ãta kõ'bẽã	ãta kõ'bẽã	inheritance		especially for clearing fields	See Language page
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	pu'a ka'ka	pu'a ka'ka	inheritance?		hunting, warfare	See Language page
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	be'ho-a	be'ho-a	inheritance			See Language page
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	tẽbũ pã'ĩã	tẽbũ pã'ĩã	inheritance		arco	See Language page
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	weʔ'ru pã'ĩã	weʔ'ru pã'ĩã	inheritance			See Language page
plate	plato	prato	culture-material	se'roa	se'roa	inheritance			See Language page
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	ho'toa	ho'toa	inheritance			See Language page
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material			missing			See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool	hõ'tia	hõ'tia	inheritance		agriculture?	See Language page
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology	hãhã	hãhã	inheritance			See Language page
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool			missing			See Language page
wax	cera	cera	other			missing			See Language page
honey	miel	mel	food	bũ'bĩã	bũ'bĩã	inheritance		only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material						See Language page
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	dyũ'tã kã'rõã	ʎũ'tã kã'rõã	inheritance			See Language page
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology						See Language page
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material			missing			See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology					a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology						See Language page
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology						See Language page
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology						See Language page
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology						See Language page
school	escuela	escola	acculturation						See Language page
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation	pa'dyeru ho'toa	pa'djeru ho'toa				See Language page
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	pa'pera	pa'pera	loan	Span/Port 'papel'		See Language page
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	o'o bã'kã	o'o bã'kã				See Language page
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	kãrã	kãrã	loan - WW	%kara		See Language page
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology						See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other						See Language page
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation						See Language page
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material			missing			See Language page
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress	ũʔpu ko'a	ũʔpu ko'a				See Language page
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation						See Language page
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation			missing			See Language page
cat	gato	gato	acculturation			missing			See Language page
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	pe'ka	pe'ka	calque	from 'fire'		See Language page
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	sa'pewa	sa'pewa	loan	Port chapeu		See Language page
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	ĩ'pi	ĩ'pi	inheritance?	cf. %apu		See Language page
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool						See Language page
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress						See Language page
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other						See Language page
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool						See Language page
salt	sal	sal	food	dyu'kira	dju'kira	loan - WW	%jukira		See Language page
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology	ba'dya	ba'dja	inheritance			See Language page
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool	pu'pu o'ka	pu'pu o'ka	inheritance		currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool	pua ka'ka	pua ka'ka			hunting and warfare	See Language page
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool			missing		esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	wa'i ba'a ri'ka	wa'i ba'a ri'ka				See Language page
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food	waʔ'ia pu'a ri'ka	waʔ'ia pu'a ri'ka	inheritance			See Language page
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	hã'ã ri'ka	hã'ã ri'ka				See Language page
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food			missing		Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	koʔ'a ('gourd', H&R)	koʔ'a ('gourd', H&R)	inheritance?			See Language page
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool			missing		esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool			missing			See Language page
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool			missing			See Language page
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool						See Language page
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture	kãrã o'koa; ĩ'rẽ o'koa	kãrã o'koa; ĩ'rẽ o'koa	unique	cane/peach-palm water'	prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food	ã'ũ bu'rua	ã'ũ bu'rua	doubtful loan - WW	%porowa	agriculture	See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food	ã'ũã	ã'ũã	inheritance		usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food	we'ta	we'ta	inheritance			See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food	pa'ru kã'bũã	pa'ru kã'bũã	loan, direction unknown	Arawak (Baniwa)	agriculture	See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food			missing		word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool	dyã'bã 'ka	ʎã'bã 'ka			agriculture	See Language page
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool	rã'bĩ 'taka	rã'bĩ 'taka	loan - WW?	%namo	hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	pe'pea; 'biʔkeri pe'pea	pe'pea; 'biʔkeri pe'pea	inheritance		agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool					can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool						See Language page
bottom grinding stone			manufacture					if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool						See Language page
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture					use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool						See Language page
spearthrower			subsistence tool						See Language page
house			other	wiʔ'i-a	wiʔ'i-a	inheritance			See Language page

Grammatical Data (226)

Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source	Etymology Notes	General Notes
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	yes		Gaviria p.51
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Strom 1992, p.12		Neither consonant clusters nor closed syllables are permitted except that a glottal stop may occur following any vowel.
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no		Strom 1992, p.12
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	yes	I checked Gaviria and found NO evidence (although it is not as clear a source; p.75-85 in Gav.)	Strom; 1992; p.12
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Strom 1992, p.11-22
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no	Neither consonant clusters nor closed syllables are permitted except that a glottal stop may follow a vowel	Strom 1992, p.21
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	yes	The Retuarã syllable conforms to the pattern: (C)V(V)(V).	Strom 1992, p.21
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no	(C)V(V)(V)	Strom 1992, p.21
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	yes	Stressed syllables often occur with raised pitch.(high/low level)	Strom 1992, p.13
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	yes	Stress is phonemic	Strom 1992, p.13
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no		Strom 1992, p.19-20
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	yes	Nasalization spreads both progressively and regressively. Nasal spreading is blocked by obstruents (except /dy/)	Strom 1992, p.20
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no		Strom 1992, p.22
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no		Strom 1992, p.67-70
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Strom 1992, p.21		There are very few morphophonemic changes in the language. The person prefixes display most of these changes.
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes		Strom 1992, p.5
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no	The only prefixes in the language are cliticized subject pronouns and one nonhuman object pronoun.	Strom 1992, p.5
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes	Affixation is done overwhelmingly by suffix.	Strom 1992, p.5		The person marker prefixes are the only prefixes of the language.
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Strom 1992, p.5
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	no		Strom 1992, p.62
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	yes		Strom 1992, p.55
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	yes		Strom 1992, p.24
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no		Strom 1992, p.32
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	yes		Strom 1992, p.32
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no	In addition to the main verb, subject markers (prefix and suffix), object marker (prefix), negative and causative affixes, the verb phrase also includes the adjuncts; Auxiliary verb, tense, aspect, mood, intensifiers, evidentials, and subordinating suffix	Strom 1992, p.38	epps-may be obligatory (like do in english whereas 27 would be more like can, should, may, etc.
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes	The auxiliary verb baa 'do, make' is used to create a construction that indicates imminence.	Strom 1992, p.38		The auxiliary takes the tense suffic while the content verb takes the subject prefix.
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	yes	Sometimes objects and instruments are incorporated into the verb. The incorporated constituent directly precedes the verb root.	Strom 1992, p.100		The incorporation of the object may can reduce the valence of the verb to make it grammatically instransitive.
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no		Strom 1992, p.100
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes	Relative clauses, dependent clauses, and nearly every noun is marked as a nominal with a number/gender suffix.	Strom 1992, p.10
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	3	Nouns are categorized according to animacy, number, and gender.	Strom 1992, p.10
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes	Whereas noun class and predicate adjective categorization have relevance outside the NP, classifiers categorize nouns within the NP according to gender, number, animacy, and shape function.	Strom 1992, p.11.		The six classes include: masculine and animate singular, feminine singular, masculine and animate dual, masculine and animate plural, feminine plural, and inanimate.
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	yes		Strom 1992, p.10
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Strom 1992, p.10
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	yes		Strom 1992, p.45-47		1. Neuter (nonhuman or inanimate) 2. Human masculine singular 3. Human feminine singular 4. Human plural
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	yes		Strom 1992, p.34
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no		Strom 1992, p.54
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes		Strom 1992, p.11
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	yes	In some cases, the head of the noun phrase appears to be copied onto the modifier to create the classifier (but drops the nominalizer.)	Strom 1992, p.55
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no	Classifiers occur obligatory bound to numerals and optionally to adjectives and demonstratives.	Strom 1992, p.54
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	yes	The affix -ri occurs after a verb root and has the function of deverbalization	Strom 1992, p.41-42
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no		Strom 1992, p.46-47
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes		Strom 1992, p.46-47
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Strom 1992, p.46-47
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Strom 1992, p.46-47
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Strom 1992, p.46-47
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		yes	There are 3 animate plural markers for numbers; -rã '2', -bãki '2+masc.', -korã 'fem'	Strom 1992, p.54-56		Attached to the classifier which procedes the head of the NP.
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no		Strom 1992, p.60
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no		Strom 1992, p.50-57
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no	There are demonstratives but no definite or indefinite articles.	Strom 1992, p.51
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no		Strom 1992, p.51
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no	Retuarã has no definite or indefinite article.	Strom 1992, p.127
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	yes	This free form of the pronoun generally occurs as an abbreviated answer to a question, or when it is the subject of certain types of clauses.(yiha-1p pl excl. bãrã-1p pl inclusive)	Strom 1992, p.34		The personal pronouns are not frequently used, perhaps because the person marker prefixes are preferred.
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		yes	The forms occur prefixed to the verb root that begins with a consonant. Before a vowel, the last vowel of the prefix may be deleted or assimilated.	Strom 1992, p.36		The rules differ somewhat for each morpheme.
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	2		Strom 1992, p.52		The locative pronouns 'here' and 'there'
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no		Strom 1992, p.51
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		yes		Strom 1992, p.34
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no		Strom 1992, p.34
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Strom 1992, p.34
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Strom 1992, p.34
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no	The only overt method to express a reflexive is to use poʔia 'body' as the object.	Strom 1992, p.133		Overtyly marked reflexives are rare in Retuarã. Instead, when the subject receives he action of a verb that could be transitive, the absence of an object noun phrase makes the reflexive implicit.
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	yes	The case markers are postposition clitics on the last word in the noun phrase.	Strom 1992, p.59		Case markers indicate the relationship of a noun phrase to the verb of a clause (also marks the relationship between two noun phrases in the same clause in the case of accompaniment.)
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	8	Retuarã uses postpositions to mark case using the eight markers; -re/-te 'Term', -rã 'Loc', -reka 'Loc.Spec', -ka-gener/number 'Abl', -pe 'Instr', -ka 'Com', -rʔsi 'Ben', -ri-gender/number 'Poss'	Strom 1992, p.37
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no		Strom 1992, p.37
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	no		Strom 1992, p.59-61
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	yes	animates	Strom 1992, p.59-61		The suffix -re marks subjects or objects which are human or referred to by a proper name.
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		no	The case markers are postposition clitics on the last word in the noun phrase.	Strom 1992, p.59
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Strom 1992, p.59
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Strom 1992, p.59
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Strom 1992, p.59-67
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Strom 1992, p.59-67
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no	The case marker -pi indicates instrument and -ka is used to indicate both coparticipant and conjunction.	Strom 1992, p.63-64
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no		Strom 1992, p.50		-rã (dual)
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	yes	The number system is base five until the number twenty.	Strom 1992, p.50
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no		Strom 1992, p.50		The Retuarã numbers one through ten are still widely used.
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	yes	After twenty, counting is by increments of twenty.	Strom 1992, p.50
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no		Strom 1992, p.50
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no	The Retuarã numbers one through ten are still widely used.	Strom 1992, p.50
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Strom 1992, p.50		The number constructions are long and cumbersome, even for native speakers so that young men may consult older men about accurate pronunciation of numbers between eleven and twenty.
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes		Strom 1992, p.41-42
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes		Strom 1992, p.41-42
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Strom 1992, p.66
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes	The case marker -rika 'possessive' comes from the verb rika 'to have' and marks a normally human noun phrase as a possessor or owner.	Strom 1992, p.66
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	yes		Strom 1992, p.66
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	no		Strom 1992, p.66
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	yes	The case marker -rika 'possessive' comes from the verb rika 'to have' and marks a normally human noun phrase as a possessor or owner.	Strom 1992, p.66-67		The possessive case marker agrees in gender and number with the possessed object.
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Strom 1992, p.66-67
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Strom 1992, p.66-67
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no		Strom 1992, p.66-67
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	no		Strom 1992, p.66-67
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	no		Strom 1992, p.66-67
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Strom 1992, p.66-67
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	yes		Strom 1992, p.24
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	no	The great majority of both adjectives and nouns end with the neuter noun class suffixes -a or -ka	Strom 1992, p.23-27
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	no		Strom 1992, p.72-83		Participles marked with -eʔka involve tense and imply an event.(p.87)
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	no		Strom 1992, p.158
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	yes	Retuarã allows a variety of object complements, that is, clauses embedded as the object of the verb.	Strom 1992, p.158
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	no		Strom 1992, p.28-33
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	yes	The case-marker -ka 'comitative', indicates both coparticipant and conjunction.	Strom 1992, p.64-65
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	yes		Strom 1992, p.73
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	yes	Immediate/Recent/Remote and General Past	Strom 1992, p.73-74
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no	Unlike the past tenses, there are no distinctions that depend on the proximity of the projected event to the moment of speaking.	Strom 1992, p.75		Future tense is indicated by the suffix -rãyu.
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		yes	Future tense is indicated by the suffix -rãyu.	Strom 1992, p.75		The future tense has a nominalized form that is used for future descriptions or conditions; the form is composed of -rã (future) plus a number/gender suffix.
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Strom 1992, p.38
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Strom 1992, p.70
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Strom 1992, p.38
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Strom 1992, p.70
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	yes	Retuarã has second-person imperatives, indirect & negative imperatives, horatory forms, and third-person imperatives.	Strom 1992, p.135
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no		Strom 1992, p.135-139		The indirect imperative is also used for courtesy; it seems to soften a command.
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	yes		Strom 1992, p.40		In declarative or interrogative sentences, the suffix -be negates the clause and follows the verb root (scopes the whole sent.) Negation of imperatives is accomplished by suffixing -aʔsi to the verb root, and constituents are negated by the neg. verb bã
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no		Strom 1992, p.137
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no		Strom 1992, p.81
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no		Strom 1992, p.81-82
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no		Strom 1992, p.81-82
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	yes		Strom 1992, p.82
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no		Strom 1992, p.82
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no		Strom 1992, p.82
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no		Strom 1992, p.82-83
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	yes	The modal -kope(contra-expectation) indicates a situation where the expected result of some proposition is frustrated and does not occur.	Strom 1992, p.82-83
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	yes	The habitual aspect suffix -wai does not indicate an event as occurring at a specific time but rather as charactericitc of all time.	Strom 1992, p.77
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	yes	The negative imperative can also be used with first- and third-person subjects, in which case it means 'lest'.	Strom 1992, p.137
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	yes		Strom 1992, p.80		There are four modal suffixes which indicate non-actual (irrealis) events.
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no		Strom 1992, p.80-83
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	yes	There are three directionals that suffix directly to the verb root.	Strom 1992, p.88		-raʔa 'toward', -waʔ'away', -ta 'vertical'
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no		Strom 1992, p.90-91		Unlike many Tucanoan languages, the evidential system in Retuarã is small and not frequently used.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	yes	The affix -ko(auditory) follows the verb stem and indicates that the source of information for the statement is auditory.	Strom 1992, p.90
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	yes	The evidential affix -rihi (assumed) indicates that the basis for the speaker's statement is assumption.	Strom 1992, p.90
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	yes	This evidential indicates that the source of the information is not first hand; he or she is just passing on what was reported to him or her.	Strom 1992, p.91
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no		Strom 1992, p.90-91
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no		Strom 1992, p.90-91		Whereas in other Tucanoan languages, evidentials are a mandatory feature of the independent verb, in Retuarã the evidentials are optional.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		yes		Strom 1992, p.90-91
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no		Strom 1992, p.90-91
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Strom 1992, p.90-91
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Strom 1992, p.90-91
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no		Strom 1992, p.69-71
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no		Strom 1992, p.90-91
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no	SOV	Strom 1992, p.3		Word order is rigid only for the subject, which, apart from negative decalaritives, occurs before other major constituents.
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no	The basic constituents of an intransitive sentence are an intransitive verb preceded by a free subject or a subject prefix.	Strom 1992, p.112
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no		Strom 1992, p.114		The basic order of a transitive clause is SOV.
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	no	In a transitive clause, the object often precedes the verb.	Strom 1992, p.111
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no	A subject noun phrase precedes the object so that in potentially ambiguous sentences where the subject and object cannot be distinguished by case marking nor semantic clues, they are distinguished by word order.	Strom 1992, p.114
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Strom 1992, p.126
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes	Noun phrases may be case-marked by postposition suffixes attached to the last word in the phrase.	Strom 1992, p.53
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes		Strom 1992, p.131
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no		Strom 1992, p.131
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	yes	The adjective generally precedes the head in Retuarã.	Strom 1992, p.51
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	no		Strom 1992, p.51		Adjectives may follow the noun, however, and such phrases in isolation may be interpreted as a noun phrase or as a descriptive clause with a predicate adj and an implicit copula.
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes	As modifiers they precede the head in a noun phrase but like adjectives, they follow the head noun when used as a predicate.	Strom 1992, p.52
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no		Strom 1992, p.52		when used as a predicate
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes	Numerals preced the head and have an obligatory classifier follwing the numeral.	Strom 1992, p.50
Word Order	Noun-Num		no		Strom 1992, p.50
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	no		Strom 1992, p.151		Relative clauses are not common.
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no	Internally-headed construction.	Strom 1992, p.151
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	yes	Clauses may be subordinated as internally headed relative clauses, object complements, or adverbial clauses.	Strom 1992, p.151
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Strom 1992, p.151
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Strom 1992, p.141
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	yes		Strom 1992, p.112-114
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Strom 1992, p.114
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no		Strom 1992, p.112-116
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Strom 1992, p.112-116
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Strom 1992, p.112-113
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		yes	When the subject and object are both pronouns (animate), the pronoun marked with -re is the object or recipient.	Strom 1992, p.114
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no		Strom 1992, p.114		Subject pronouns are usually cliticized and prefixed to the verb (and thus are not case-marked.
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Strom 1992, p.114
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Strom 1992, p.114
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Strom 1992, p.114
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	yes		Strom 1992, p.112-117
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Strom 1992, p.112-117
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Strom 1992, p.112-117
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	no	Subject pronouns are usually cliticized and prefixed to the verb.	Strom 1992, p.115		Free subject pronouns are always postverbal in negative declaritive sentences.
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes	Subject pronouns are usually cliticized and prefixed to the verb (and thus are not case-marked.)	Strom 1992, p.114
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Strom 1992, p.114
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Strom 1992, p.114
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Strom 1992, p.115
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	no		Strom 1992, p.112
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes	Subject pronouns are usually cliticized and prefixed to the verb.	Strom 1992, p.114
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes	It is also common to have just the object pronoun prefixed to the verb when the subject is a full noun phrase.	Strom 1992, p.116		It appears you can have both subj and object marked on verb (just not at the same time)
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Strom 1992, p.116
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Strom 1992, p.116
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no		Strom 1992,p.114-117
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	yes		Strom 1992, p.129-131
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	no	3rd person only	Strom 1992,p.36
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	no		Strom 1992, p.118
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	yes	Ditransitive verbs take two objects.	Strom 1992, p.118		The roles of the object noun phrases are semantically interpreted, not grammatically marked.
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no		Strom 1992, p.118
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes	Reciprocality may be overtly marked by -bua (reciprcal) following the verb root.	Strom 1992, p.99		As with reflexives, some verbs are inherently reciprocal.
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	yes	Overtly marked reflexives are rare in Retuarã.	Strom 1992, p.133		Instead, when the subject receives the action of a verb that could be transitive, the absence of an object noun phrase makes the reflexive implicit.
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	no		Strom 1992, p.133
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes		Strom 1992, p.31		The subject can be both agent and patient.
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no		Strom 1992, p.28
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no	Some intransitive verbs are the product of object incorporation which reduces the valence of transitive verbs.	Strom 1992, p.31
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	no		Strom 1992, p.65
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	no		Strom 1992, p.65
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Strom 1992, p.92
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes	The morphological causitive is formed by adding a causative suffix immediately after the verb root.	Strom 1992, p.92		The causee is the object or recipient of the verb.
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no	There are evidences of a variety of past processes of causative formation that are no longer productive.	Strom 1992, p.92
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	no		Strom 1992, p.100
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no		Strom 1992, p.96
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no		Strom 1992,p.92-100
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no		Strom 1992,p.92-100
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	no		Strom 1992, p.145
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	yes		Strom 1992, p.145
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	yes	Sentence negation is expressed by the verbal suffix -be which immegiately follows the verb root	Strom 1992, p.145
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	no		Strom 1992, p.145
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	yes		Strom 1992, p.147
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Strom 1992, p.145
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no		Strom 1992, p.145
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no		Strom 1992, p.146
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	yes	Questions are formed by adding a question marker to an indicative clause. The question marker is usually clause initial.	Strom 1992, p.141		Yahe does not occur in negative questions. Bai extends only to constituents of the sentence and can occur in positive or negative
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Strom 1992, p.141
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Strom 1992, p.141
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	no		Strom 1992, p.141		Typically the intonation of a question rises slightly at the end.
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no		Strom 1992, p.141
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	no		Strom 1992, p.51
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	yes	In isolation may be interpreted as a noun phrase or as a descriptive clause with a predicate adjective and an implicit copula.	Strom 1992, p.51
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	yes	Predicate nominals can also be formed using a deictic pronoun or a personal pronoun when the copula is omitted.	Strom 1992, p.129		The copula in Retuarã is the verb ibã.
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes	When relativizing into the subject, object, or recipient and the head of the relative clause is pronominal, rather than full NP, the pronoun is omitted and the head is referred to only by the number/gender suffix	Strom 1992, p.151-154	Relative clauses in Retuarã are not common.	headless relative with number/gender inflection
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no		Strom 1992, p.151
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no		Strom 1992, p.151
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		yes		Strom 1992, p.152
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	yes		Strom 1992, p.152
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	no		Strom 1992, p.159-170
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no		Strom 1992,p.151-158
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no		Strom 1992,p.159-161
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	yes	The suffix -baraka indicates that the event of the subordinate clause is simultaneous with the event of the matrix clause. The suffix -tirã indicates that the event of the subordinate clause immediately precedes the event of the matrix clause.	Strom 1992, p.169

Ethnographic Information

Current Population (speakers)	Former Population Estimate	Subsistence Preference	Density	Sedentism	Ecotome	Marriage Pattern	Notes	Source
						Linguistic exogamy