Karitiana

Family
Tupian
Region
South America
ISO 639-3
ktn
Location
-9.38°, -64.15°
Notes
Features
Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Data Sources
Everett, Caleb. 2006. Patterns in Karitiana: Articulation, Perception and Grammar. Rice University, PhD dissertation. Galucio, Ana Vilacy; Meira, Sérgio; Birchall, Joshua; Moore, Denny; Gabas Júnior, Nilson; Drude, Sebastian; Storto, Luciana; Picanḉo, Gessiane; Rodrigues, Carmen Reis. 2015. Genealogical relations and lexical distances within the Tupí linguistic family: a lexicostatistical and phylogenetic approach. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Humanas, 10.2:229-274. Landin, David J. 1980. An outline of the syntactic structure of Karitiana sentences. University College, London. (MA thesis). Landin, David J. 1983. Diccionário e léxico Karitiana/Portugues. SIL, Brasília. Storto, Luciana. 1999. Aspects of a Karitiana Grammar. PhD dissertation, MIT.


Basic Vocabulary (191)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes General Notes Source
above encima, arriba acima location missing See Language page
and y e grammar tỹm tɨ̃m See Language page
ash ceniza(s) cinzas environment isorokoj isoɾokoj unknown See Language page
at en, a em, a location See Language page
back espalda costas body okyty okɨ̃tɨ̃ inheritance See Language page
bad mal mal quality missing See Language page
belly barriga barriga body kõnh kõɲ unknown See Language page
below abajo, debajo abaixo location missing See Language page
big grande grande quality tyy tɨɨ inheritance See Language page
black negro preto colour missing See Language page
blood sangre sangue body ge ge unknown See Language page
boil/pimple espinilla, granos espinha, borbulha body missing See Language page
bone hueso osso body ´ep ʔep unknown compare Arawak See Language page
breast pecho, seno peito body nõm nõm unknown See Language page
child niño, niña criança human õwã õwã unknown See Language page
cloud nube nuvem environment esyra, pãmpipok esɨɾa, pãmpipok unknown See Language page
cold frío frio quality keõ´n keõʔn unknown See Language page
correct/true verdad, de veras verdade quality missing See Language page
day día dia time kat kat unknown See Language page
dirty sucio sujo quality ẽm ẽm unknown See Language page
dingo/wolf fauna See Language page
dry seco seco quality pipaseep pipaseep unknown See Language page
dull/blunt sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo maçante, desamolado, não afiado quality See Language page
dust polvo poeira environment missing See Language page
ear oreja orelha body opirisap opiɾisap unknown See Language page
earth/soil tierra terra environment ejepi, eje´ĩn ejepi, ejeʔĩn unknown See Language page
egg huevo ovo fauna sypi sɨpi inheritance See Language page
eye ojo olho body sypo sɨpo unknown See Language page
far lejos longe quality opa opa unknown See Language page
fat/grease grasa gordura body missing See Language page
father padre, papá pai kinship ´it (masculine ego), syp (feminine ego) ʔit, sɨp unknown See Language page
feather pluma pena fauna sop sop unknown See Language page
fire fuego fogo environment iso iso unknown See Language page
flower flor flor environment ewosiit ewosiit unknown See Language page
fog niebla, neblina nevoeira, bruma, neblina environment See Language page
fruit fruta fruta flora epe´o epeʔo unknown See Language page
good bueno bom quality se´a seʔa unknown See Language page
hair (of head) cabello cabelo body osop, osopot osop, osopot unknown See Language page
hand mano mão body py inheritance See Language page
3sg el/ella ele/ela grammar i i inheritance See Language page
head cabeza cabeça body ´o ʔo unknown See Language page
heavy pesado pesado quality pyti pɨti inheritance See Language page
how? como como grammar tikat tikat unknown See Language page
1sg yo eu grammar y, ỹn, ỹnỹ ɨ, ɨ̃n, ɨ̃nɨ̃ unknown For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms See Language page
if si se grammar tykit tɨkit See Language page
in/inside dentro, adentro dentro location kypip, pip kɨpip, pip inheritance See Language page
intestines intestinos intestinos body missing See Language page
lake lago lago environment esekarawa esekaɾawa unknown See Language page
leaf hoja folha environment epesap (ep{tree}-esap?) epesap unknown See Language page
left/left hand izquierdo esquerdo location/body põnh põɲ unknown See Language page
leg/foot pierna perna body missing See Language page
lightning rayo, relámpago relampago environment pãmpi haryhary pãmpi haɾɨhaɾɨ unknown See Language page
liver hígado figado body kyry kɨɾɨ unknown See Language page
long largo comprido, longo quality horop hoɾop unknown See Language page
louse piollo, piojo piolho fauna gep gep inheritance order Phtiraptera See Language page
man/male hombre homem human taso taso unknown See Language page
meat/flesh carne carne fauna hĩm hĩm unknown See Language page
moon luna lua environment oti oti inheritance See Language page
mother madre, mamá mãe kinship ti ti inheritance See Language page
mouth boca boca body koromo koɾomo unknown See Language page
name nombre nome human sat sat unknown See Language page
near/close cerca de perto quality mypi mɨpi unknown See Language page
nape base del cuello, nuca nuca body See Language page
neck cuello pescoço body hyto hɨto unknown See Language page
new nuevo novo quality got, opit got, opit unknown; inheritance See Language page
night noche noite time nip, mõnh nip, mõɲ unknown; unknown See Language page
no/not no não grammar o´ĩ oʔĩ unknown See Language page
nose nariz nariz body nhõpi´op ɲõpiʔop unknown See Language page
old viejo velho quality hyk hɨk unknown See Language page
one uno um number mỹhĩn mɨ̃hĩn unknown See Language page
other otro outro grammar otat, pojogo otat, pojogo unknown See Language page
pain/painful/sick dolor, doloroso, enfermo dor, doloroso, doente body missing See Language page
person/human being persona pessoa human ota ota unknown See Language page
rain lluvia chuva environment e e unknown See Language page
red rojo vermelho colour missing See Language page
right/right hand derecha direita location/body missing See Language page
road/path camino caminho manufacture pa, ky´op pa, kɨʔop inheritance See Language page
root raíz raiz flora epkyjymy epkɨjɨmɨ unknown See Language page
rotten podrido podre quality nãm nãm inheritance See Language page
sand arena areia environment eje´ĩn ejeʔɨ̃n inheritance See Language page
sharp afilado, filudo, filoso afiado quality ky´e kɨʔe unknown See Language page
short corto curto quality okỹn, tek okɨ̃n, tek unknown See Language page
shoulder hombro ombro body oke oke unknown See Language page
shy/ashamed tímido, vergonzoso timido, com vergonha mental missing See Language page
skin piel pele body pa, pykyp pa, pɨkɨp inheritance See Language page
sky cielo céu environment pãmpi pãmpi unknown See Language page
small pequeño pequeno quality ´ĩn ʔɨ̃n unknown See Language page
smoke humo fumaça environment iso nhĩng, nhĩga iso ɲĩng, ɲĩga inheritance See Language page
star estrella estrela environment otirypo otiɾɨpo unknown See Language page
stick/wood palo pau, vara flora missing See Language page
stone piedra pedra environment kinapyti kinapɨti unknown See Language page
tail cola, rabo rabo body peteppa peteppa unknown See Language page
that ese/esa esse grammar missing See Language page
3pl ellos/ellas eles/elas grammar missing See Language page
thick grueso, gordo, espeso grosso quality paneto, patyrat paneto, patɨɾat unknown See Language page
thin delgado fino quality ewet ewet unknown See Language page
this este/esta este grammar inheritance See Language page
2sg xx xx grammar a a unknown See Language page
throat garganta garganta body nãmỹngyn nãmɨ̃ngɨn unknown See Language page
three tres tres number mỹnhỹm mɨ̃ɲɨ̃m unknown See Language page
thunder truenos trovão environment missing See Language page
bite morder morder body okot okot unknown See Language page
blow soplar soprar body he he unknown See Language page
breathe respirar respirar body hãn hãn unknown See Language page
burn quemar queimar environment pipop pipop unknown See Language page
chew masticar, mascar mastigar body missing See Language page
climb subir subir motion amo amo unknown See Language page
come venir vir motion missing See Language page
cook cocinar cozinhar impact otet otet unknown See Language page
count contar contar mental pasag pasag unknown See Language page
cry llorar chorar mental hyryp hɨrɨp unknown See Language page
cut/hack cortar cortar impact sing sing unknown See Language page
die/be dead morir morrer state owi, pop owi, pop unknown See Language page
dig cavar cavar impact pyryt pɨrɨt unknown See Language page
dream soñar sonhar mental kaaj kaaj unknown See Language page
drink beber, tomar beber body hay, se´y haɨ, seʔɨ unknown See Language page
eat comer comer body pyt´y pɨtʔɨ unknown See Language page
fall caer cair motion ako, ´ot ako, ʔot unknown See Language page
fear miedo medo mental opipatin (be afraid) opipatin unknown See Language page
flow fluir fluir motion missing See Language page
fly volar voar motion missing See Language page
grow crecer crescer state kerep keɾep unknown See Language page
hear oír ouvir mental missing See Language page
hide esconder esconder motion hej hej unknown See Language page
hit golpear, pegar bater impact mĩ mĩ unknown See Language page
hold correr, asegurar, sostener segurar other kak kak unknown See Language page
kill matar matar impact oky okɨ inheritance See Language page
know/be knowledgeable saber, conecer saber, conhecer mental nonyp (know a fact), pypyn (know how) nonɨp, pɨpɨn unknown See Language page
laugh reír rir mental haha (onomatopoeia) haha unknown See Language page
lie down acostarse, echarse deitar motion amo, nẽg amo, nẽg unknown; inheritance See Language page
live/be alive vivir viver, morar body missing See Language page
open/uncover abrir abrir other missing See Language page
pound/beat machacar, golpear bater impact mĩ mĩ See Language page
say decir dizer mental missing See Language page
scratch rascar rasgar impact sik sik unknown See Language page
see ver ver mental missing See Language page
shoot tirar, disparar, balear atirar impact atsykat atsɨkat unknown See Language page
sit sentar(se) sentar state amik, mik amik, mik inheritance See Language page
sleep dormir dormir body kat kat inheritance See Language page
sniff/smell olfatear, oler cheirar body hĩn, hynnãnã hĩn, hɨnnãnã unknown primarily transitive See Language page
spit escupir cuspir body missing See Language page
split partir, dividir rachar, dividir, partir impact soky sokɨ inheritance See Language page
squeeze estrujar, exprimir espremer impact missing See Language page
stab/pierce apuñalar, acuchillar apunhalar impact missing See Language page
stand estar de pié ficar em pé state missing See Language page
steal robar roubar other pytag pɨtag unknown See Language page
suck chupar chupar body nẽ´õm nẽʔõm unknown See Language page
swell hincharse inchar body missing See Language page
swim nadar nadar motion taktag taktag unknown See Language page
think pensar pensar mental koro´ophan koɾoʔophan doubtful loan, direction unknown Wari' See Language page
throw tirar, lanzar atirar, jogar impact atsykat atsɨkat inheritance? See Language page
tie up/fasten atar, amarrar amarrar impact soko´ĩ sokoʔĩ unknown See Language page
turn girar, volter, torcer virar other missing may be transitive or intransitive See Language page
vomit vomitar vomitar body missing See Language page
walk caminar, andar andar motion sing, tek sing, tek unknown; unknown See Language page
work trabajar trabalhar other missing See Language page
yawn bostezar bocejar body missing See Language page
tongue lengua lingua body koromopi´yp koɾomopiʔɨp unknown See Language page
tooth diente dente body nhõnh ɲõɲ unknown See Language page
two dos dois number sypõm sɨpõm unknown See Language page
water agua agua environment ese ese unknown See Language page
1pl.incl nosotros (inclusivo) nós (inclusivo) grammar yj (com v.i.), yjja (com v.i.) ɨj inheritance no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted See Language page
1pl.excl nosotros (exclusivo) nós (exclusivo) grammar yta ɨta unknown See Language page
wet mojado molhado quality semok semok unknown See Language page
what? que, qué que grammar mõramõn mõɾamõn unknown See Language page
when? cuando quando grammar tikat tikat unknown See Language page
where? donde onde grammar ta´i (where is it?) taʔi unknown See Language page
white blanco branco colour pok pok unknown See Language page
who? quien, quién quem grammar mõra mõɾa unknown See Language page
wife esposa esposa kinship sooj sooj unknown See Language page
wind viento vento environment missing See Language page
wing ala asa body papa´ep papaʔep inheritance See Language page
woman/female mujer mulher human nhõnso ɲõnso unknown See Language page
yellow amarillo amarelo colour kyrysiiry kɨrɨsiirɨ unknown See Language page
2pl ustedes vocês grammar missing See Language page
foot pie body pi pi inheritance See Language page
again de nuevo, otra vez de novo grammar missing See Language page
all todo todos other arahot aɾahot unknown See Language page
ankle tobillo tornozelo body missing See Language page
armpit axila, sobaco axila body missing See Language page
faeces heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol fezes body missing See Language page
lung pulmón pulmão body hanĩmpa pawak hanĩmpa pawak unknown See Language page
sweat sudar suor, suar body missing See Language page
itch hormiguear, sentir comezón coçar body kyj kɨj See Language page
bark corteza casca environment pykyp pɨkɨp unknown See Language page
fingernail uña unha body pysokõn pɨsokõn unknown See Language page
heart corazón coração body hanĩmpa hanĩmpa unknown See Language page
sun sol sol time go, gokyp go, gokɨp unknown See Language page
mountain/hill montaña, colina, loma, cerro morro, serra environment neso neso unknown See Language page
green verde verde quality missing See Language page
hot caliente quente quality oky okɨ inheritance See Language page


Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Linnean Name Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Etymology Notes Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Range of Term Word Structure Word Structure Notes Classifier Classifier Notes Hypernym Source Association with Social Categories Ritual/Mythologically Significant Ritual Notes Food Source Food Notes Medicinal Medicinal Notes How Collected Who Collects How Prepared Psychotropic Psychotropic Notes Traded Trade Notes Distribution Habitat Dangerous Ethnobiology Notes Species Notes General Notes
bat murciélago morcego flora-fauna Chiroptera spp. asori asoɾi unknown See Language page
bird pajaro, ave passaro flora-fauna ĩnh ĩnh unknown See Language page
curassow mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini) mutum flora-fauna Crax sp., Nothocrax sp. misỹ misɨ̃ inheritance See Language page Amazonia
toucan tucán, pinsha (Peru) tucano flora-fauna Ramphastos sp. nhe´okõm ɲeʔokõm unknown See Language page Widespread Amazonia
gray-winged trumpeter Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris jacamim flora-fauna Psophia crepitans sỹnh sɨ̃ɲ unknown See Language page Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
guan pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru) jacu flora-fauna Penelope sp. pa´ỹj paʔɨ̃j unknown See Language page Different types have different localized ranges
tinamou tinamu, perdiz, gallineta inambu, inhambu flora-fauna family Tinamidae õhõrõrõ õhõɾõɾõ unknown See Language page Widespread Amazonia
hummingbird colibrí, picaflor (Peru) beija-flor flora-fauna family Trochilidae yjora ɨjoɾa unknown See Language page Widespread
kingfisher martín pescador, catalan (Peru) martim-pescador flora-fauna family Alcedinidae missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
owl (large) búho, lechuza corujão flora-fauna order Strigiformes missing See Language page Widespread
macaw ara, guacamaya Arara flora-fauna family Psittacidae; Ara sp. pat pat unknown See Language page Widespread Amazonia
parrot loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib) papagaio flora-fauna Amazona amazonica missing See Language page Widespread
dove paloma pomba flora-fauna family Columbidae missing See Language page
hawk halcón, gavilán gavião flora-fauna family Accipitridae pypỹrĩ pɨpɨ̃ɾĩ unknown See Language page
vulture buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru) urubu flora-fauna family Cathartidae ´akyry, kinanãm ʔakɨɾɨ, kinanãm unknown See Language page Widespread South America
duck pato pato, marreco flora-fauna Anatidae family kyky kɨkɨ unknown See Language page
great egret Garza Blanca, Guyratî Garça-Branca-Grande flora-fauna Ardea alba okorojo, kennõpokojẽg okoɾojo, kennõpokojẽg unknown See Language page Widespread South America
woodpecker pájaro carpintero, carpintero pica-pau flora-fauna family Picidae yrypãn ɨɾɨpãn unknown See Language page Widespread Amazonia
dog (camp, domestic) perro cachorro flora-fauna Canis famililaris omãkymy´em (lit. onca mimada) omãkɨmɨʔem semantic shift jaguar See Language page Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog) sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta cachorro-do-mato flora-fauna Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis See Language page Widespread Amazonia
anteater oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus tamanduá flora-fauna Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater) ojopyty ojopɨtɨ unknown See Language page Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo) tatu flora-fauna family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri sosy sosɨ unknown See Language page Widespread in Amazonia
sloth pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru) macaco preguica flora-fauna Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
alligator, black caiman babilla; cachirre jacaré flora-fauna Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp. osy, saara osɨ, saaɾa unknown See Language page Throughout Amazonia Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
electric eel anguila eléctrica poraquê flora-fauna Electrophorus electricus nhỹgty ɲɨ̃gtɨ unknown See Language page
fish (generic) pez peixe flora-fauna ip ip inheritance See Language page
pacu fish palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru) pacu flora-fauna Mylossoma sp. itot itot See Language page
pirana piraña, caribe piranha flora-fauna subfamily Serrasalmidae isõnhõ isõɲõ unknown See Language page Widespread Amazonia
tigerfish taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru) traíra flora-fauna Hoplias sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
mandi catfish maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish) mandi flora-fauna Auchenipterus sp. nhõpeko ɲõpeko See Language page Widespread Amazonia
speckled catfish surubí, pintadillo surubim, sorubim flora-fauna Pseudoplatystoma sp. ipimyj ipimɨj See Language page Widespread Amazonia
toad sapo sapo flora-fauna order Anura kyryryt kɨɾɨɾɨt See Language page
iguana iguana, garipiares (Colombia) camaleão flora-fauna Iguana sp. missing See Language page iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
small lizard lagartija calango flora-fauna order Squamata missing See Language page
stingray (generic) rayas látigo, raya arraia flora-fauna Potamotrygon sp. missing See Language page
crab cangrejo caranguejo flora-fauna infraorder Brachyura are aɾe unknown See Language page
anaconda anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande sucuri flora-fauna genus Eunectes missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
boa boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura jiboia flora-fauna family Boidae, subf. Boinae missing See Language page
snake (generic) culebra, serpiente cobra flora-fauna moroja moɾoja inheritance See Language page
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara jararaca flora-fauna Bothrops jararaca/atrox missing See Language page Widespread South America
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant) tortuga, morrocoy, motelo jabutí, tartaruga flora-fauna Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria myp mɨp unknown See Language page Widespread
Amazon dolphin bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco) boto cor-de-rosa flora-fauna Inia geoffrensis missing See Language page Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls
mushroom champiñón, hongo cogumelo flora-fauna (any edible generic) missing See Language page prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
black palm bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá bacaba flora-fauna Oenocarpus bacaba missing See Language page Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
açai palm huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia) açaí flora-fauna Euterpe sp. iri iɾi unknown See Language page floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
miriti palm moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti buriti flora-fauna Mauritia flexuosa pojo pojo See Language page Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps trunks contain sago-like starch
palm for roof thatch pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná caraná flora-fauna Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana missing See Language page Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests palm
paxiuba palm pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba paxiuba flora-fauna Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol) pupunha flora-fauna Bactris gasipaes ɲõɲ mɨt [bɨt] ɲõɲ mɨt [bɨt] peach palm (pupunha) unknown Galucio et al. 2015: 269
seje palm ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá patoá, patuá flora-fauna Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua ewy ewɨ See Language page mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
coca coca coca flora-fauna Erythroxylum coca missing See Language page secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes plant
cotton algodón algodão flora-fauna Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers) erery eɾeɾɨ unknown See Language page secondary scrub vegetation plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
kapok ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.) sumaumeira flora-fauna Ceiba pentandra missing See Language page northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas tree
hot pepper ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru) pimenta flora-fauna Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens sojo sojo unknown See Language page secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden plant
peanut maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete amendoim flora-fauna Arachis hypogaea mĩ´ĩ mĩʔĩ See Language page plant
pineapple piña abacaxi flora-fauna Ananas comosus kojpa kojpa unknown See Language page plant
arrow cane, wildcane caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio flora-fauna Gynerium sagittatum See Language page tropical regions, especially river banks plant
banana, plantain banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano banana flora-fauna Musa sp. asyryty asɨɾɨtɨ unknown See Language page Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
beans frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas) feijão flora-fauna Phaseolus spp. missing See Language page plant
grass hierba, pasto capim, grama flora-fauna (generic) missing See Language page
maize, corn mazorca, maiz milho flora-fauna Zea mays gijo gijo unknown See Language page widespread, esp. in river floodplains plant
tobacco tabaco tabaco flora-fauna Nicotiana tabacum missing See Language page plant
tree árbol arvore flora-fauna ep ep unknown See Language page
achiote, anatto achiote urucum flora-fauna Bixa orellana missing See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens shrub
inga guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru) inga flora-fauna Inga spp. eemyk, mẽrẽ´õn eemɨk, mẽɾẽʔõn unknown; doubtful loan (cf. Tukanoan mene) See Language page Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
avocado palta, aguacate abacate flora-fauna Persea americana missing See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens tree
bitterwood tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru) envira flora-fauna Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala See Language page secondary forests, native to Brazil tree
brazil nut castaña castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis) flora-fauna Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia'] minhõ miɲõ See Language page 1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua. tree
cashew anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela) caju flora-fauna Anacardium occidentale / giganteum iriwohy iɾiwohɨ unknown See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
genipap jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico genipapo, jenipapo flora-fauna Genipapa americana kinapasoj kinapasoj unknown See Language page widespread lowland SA shrub
japurá oreja de murcielago japurá flora-fauna Erisma japura See Language page large tree
rubber tree (sorva) caucho, siringa, shiringa seringa, borracha flora-fauna Hevea sp. goharara gohaɾaɾa See Language page Widespread Amazonia tree
ucuqui yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru) ucuqui flora-fauna Pouteria ucuqui See Language page native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
Amazon tree-grape uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.) cucura flora-fauna Pourouma cecropiifolia missing See Language page grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times a tree; not a true grape
manioc (bitter or generic) yuca brava mandioca flora-fauna Manihot esculenta gok gok unknown See Language page not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition. Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet) yuca, caribe macaxeira flora-fauna Manihot esculenta missing See Language page Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
potato papa batata flora-fauna Solanum tuberosum See Language page secondary scrub vegetation compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara batata-doce flora-fauna Ipomoea batatas ohy ohɨ unknown See Language page plant
cará tuber, purple or white camote, sachapapa cará roxo, branco flora-fauna Dioscorea sp. pokoho pokoho See Language page secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings plant
tannia, yautia huitina (Peru), ñame taioba branca flora-fauna Xanthosoma spp. missing See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree) calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara cabaça flora-fauna Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine) mojoto mojoto See Language page indigenous gardens plant; tree
squash calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru) abóbora flora-fauna Cucurbita sp. pasi pasi unknown See Language page plant
cipó vine tamishi, bejuco, yare cipó flora-fauna Heteropsis spp. teppy teppɨ See Language page secondary forest, floodplain vine
fish poison, barbasco barbasco, matapez (Colombia) timbó flora-fauna Lonchocarpus spp. tig, topyk tig, topɨk unknown maybe cognate 'tingui' (fish w/ timbo) See Language page secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation shrub/tree
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca ayahuasca, yage ayahuasca, caapi flora-fauna Banisteriopsis caapi missing See Language page semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW vine
hallucinogenic snuff vilca, cebil, yopo paricá, yopo flora-fauna Anadenanthera sp. or virola See Language page
insect (generic) insecto insecto flora-fauna generic See Language page
ant (generic) hormiga formiga flora-fauna Formicidae See Language page
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro tocandira flora-fauna Paraponera clavata nõpiowojo, nõpi nõpiowojo, nõpi unknown See Language page
leaf-cutter ant Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse saúva flora-fauna Atta sp. mĩgo mĩgo unknown See Language page
honeybee abeja abelha flora-fauna Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis eet, esõmõra, õn eet, esõmõɾa, õn unknown See Language page
cockroach cucaracha barata-do-mato flora-fauna order Blattaria missing See Language page
firefly, lightning bug lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin) vagalume flora-fauna fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae missing See Language page
butterfly, moth mariposa borboleta flora-fauna order Lepidoptera kynkon kɨnkon unknown See Language page
moth mariposa nocturna, polilla mariposa flora-fauna order Lepidoptera See Language page
angleworm lombriz minhoca flora-fauna order Opisthopora gyryjy gɨɾɨjɨ unknown See Language page
centipede ciempiés centopéia flora-fauna class Chilopoda pasẽn, tĩ´ĩ´ipa pasẽn, tĩʔĩʔipa See Language page
scorpion escorpión; alacran escorpião flora-fauna order Scorpiones kennõn kennõn unknown See Language page
cicada cigarra, chicharra cigarra flora-fauna super fam. Cicadoidea pettera, eti, inõinõ petteɾa, eti, inõinõ unknown See Language page
flea pulga pulga flora-fauna order Siphonaptera kinãmẽn kinãmẽn unknown See Language page
blowfly/housefly mosca mosca flora-fauna Diptera mãrãm mãɾãm inheritance See Language page
cricket saltón, grillo grilo flora-fauna family Gryllidae pasẽn pasẽn unknown See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil) suri, mojojoy larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá flora-fauna Rhynchophorus sp. yro, kentak ɨɾo, kentak unknown See Language page
praying mantis, stick insects mantis religiosa louva-a-deus flora-fauna order Mantodea, family Mantidae See Language page
mosquito mosquito, zancudo mosquito, carapana flora-fauna Anopheles sp. tik tik unknown See Language page
termites, white-ants comején (Peru), termitas cupim flora-fauna order Isoptera gypy gɨpɨ inheritance See Language page
tick garrapata carrapato flora-fauna superfam Ixodoidea ororojo oɾoɾojo unknown See Language page
wasp avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa caba flora-fauna order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita mẽwõ mẽwõ unknown See Language page
snail caracol, churo (Peru) caracol flora-fauna class Gastropoda nõrõnh nõɾõnh unknown See Language page
spider araña aranha flora-fauna Arachnidae, Araneae missing See Language page
jaguar yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru) onca flora-fauna Panthera onca omãky omãkɨ unknown See Language page
manatee vaca marina, manatí peixe-boi flora-fauna Trichechus sp. See Language page
brown woolly monkey Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt macaco barrigudo flora-fauna Lagothrix lagothricha missing See Language page
howler monkey (red-handed) mono aullador, mono coto (Peru) guariba flora-fauna Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.] missing See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero macaco prego flora-fauna Cebus apella pikkõn pikkõn unknown See Language page
white-fronted capuchin Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru) Caiarara flora-fauna Cebus albifrons missing See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia) macaco aranha, coatá, quatá flora-fauna Ateles belzebuth/paniscus missing See Language page
opossum zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo mucura flora-fauna family Didelphidae missing See Language page
giant otter Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria ariranha flora-fauna Pteronura brasiliensis missing See Language page
neotropical otter (small) Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia) lontra flora-fauna Lontra longicaudis toro toɾo unknown See Language page
collared peccary sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar caititu, caetitu flora-fauna Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu missing See Language page
white-lipped peccary Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana queixada flora-fauna Tayassu pecari sojjaty sojjatɨ unknown See Language page
porcupine puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru) cuandu, porco-espinho flora-fauna family Erethizontidae koroko koɾoko unknown See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache quati flora-fauna genus Nasua irisa iɾisa unknown See Language page
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti) Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado cutia flora-fauna Dasyprocta spp. mỹno mɨ̃no unknown See Language page
capybara Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco capivara flora-fauna Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris syhej sɨhej unknown See Language page
green acouchi Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo cutiara flora-fauna Myoprocta pratti missing See Language page
paca (lowland) Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana) paca flora-fauna Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.) moroty moɾotɨ unknown See Language page
mouse, rat ratón camundongo, rata flora-fauna Mus musculus missing See Language page
squirrel ardilla, danta (Ven) serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo flora-fauna family Sciuridae missing See Language page
tapir sachavaca, danta anta flora-fauna Tapirus terrestris ´irip ʔiɾip inheritance See Language page
deer venado veado, cariacu flora-fauna family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus ne ne unknown See Language page
horse caballo cavalho flora-fauna Equus caballus See Language page


Cultural Vocabulary (97)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes Word Structure Word Structure Notes General Notes Source
basket (general) canasta, canasto, cesta cesto culture-material omi omi unknown cf. Itonama omoʔo See Language page
basket, small canasta, canasto, cesta cesto pequeno, tampado culture-material See Language page
bead abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar miçanga culture-material missing See Language page
bed cama cama culture-material katapa katapa unknown See Language page
hammock hamaca, chinchorro rede culture-material eremy eɾemɨ unknown See Language page
bench, seat banco, silla, asiento banco culture-material mikipa mikipa inheritance from 'sit' See Language page
canoe canoa canoa transport gojo gojo unknown See Language page
drum (large signal) tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia) tambor culture missing Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances See Language page
drum tambor tambor culture-mythology missing See Language page
shaman, healer chamán, brujo xaman, pajé, feiticeiro culture-mythology pyharỹnh pɨhaɾɨ̃ɲ unknown In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv See Language page
healer curandero benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano) culture-mythology Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well. See Language page
broom escoba vassoura culture-material missing See Language page
clothing ropa roupa culture-mythology pykyp pɨkɨp unknown See Language page
fence, palisade cerco cerca other missing may be related to defense/warfare? See Language page
firewood leña lenha other sõg sõg unknown See Language page
Curupira (spirit type) Curupira, Madremonte Curupira culture-mythology malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio espirito culture-mythology pysãmẽn pɨsãmẽn unknown See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure dios(es), deidad divinidade, figura mítica culture-mythology motỹnh motɨ̃ɲ unknown In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc. See Language page
flute flauta, quena (Peru) flauta culture-mythology nhewy, sowy ɲewɨ, sowɨ unknown multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc. See Language page
panpipe carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora caniço, flauta de pã culture-mythology See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making canoa para chicha cocho de caxiri narcotics See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya) kapiwaya capiwaya culture-mythology See Language page
knife cuchillo faca culture-material tãnh tãɲ unknown See Language page
machete machete facão culture-material missing See Language page
axe/stone axe hacha (de piedra) machado (de pedra) subsistence tool hikɨnɨt hikynyt unknown especially for clearing fields See Language page
arrow flecha flecha subsistence tool mypãn mɨpãn unknown hunting, warfare See Language page
spear lanza lança subsistence tool nhẽpỹrỹg ɲẽpɨ̃ɾɨ̃g unknown See Language page
bow arco arco subsistence tool or´ep oɾʔep unknown arco See Language page
paddle/oar remo remo transport eppa eppa unknown See Language page
plate plato prato culture-material missing See Language page
pot olla, pote panela, vasilha subsistence tool mɨt myt doubtful loan Trinitario met-si; Tacanan meči See Language page
basin/bowl tazón, plato hondo, taza tijela culture-material missing See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru) forno para beiju subsistence tool missing agriculture? See Language page
rattle matraca, maraca marico, chocalho culture-mythology missing See Language page
resin resina, brea, copal resina, brea, breu subsistence tool okɨ oky semantic shift from beeswax See Language page
wax cera cera other oky okɨ unknown See Language page
honey miel mel food eetese, mookose, õnse eetese, mookose, õnse unknown only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia? See Language page
stone for lighting fires piedra para hacer fuego pedra para acender fogo culture-material See Language page
rope/string mecate, cuerda, soga corda culture takipa takipa unknown See Language page
tattoo tatuaje, tatu tatuagem culture-mythology See Language page
thatch/roof crisneja palha, caraná culture-material missing See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women) yurupari jurupari culture-mythology a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women. See Language page
fetish, charm fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga feitiço, puçanga culture-mythology See Language page
feather headdress plumaje, corona de plumas enfeite/capacete de penas culture-mythology See Language page
paint body, body paint pintura corporal pintura corporal culture-mythology See Language page
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven tierra do los muertos terra dos mortos culture-mythology See Language page
school escuela escola acculturation See Language page
bottle botella garrafa acculturation See Language page
paper papel papel acculturation missing See Language page
dream sueño, soñar sonho, sonhar culture-mythology kaaj (vb.) kaaj (vb.) See Language page
chicken gallina galinha acculturation opogako opogako unknown See Language page
grave tumba, sepultura, sepulcro sepultura, sepulcro, cova culture-mythology See Language page
pipe for tobacco pipa cachimbo other See Language page
sugarcane/sugar azúcar, caña de azúcar açucar (de cana) acculturation tẽm ('cana') tẽm ('cana') See Language page
skirt falda, saya, fustan, pollera saia culture-material missing See Language page
shoes zapatos sapatos dress pipykyp pipɨkɨp See Language page
policeman polícia policía acculturation See Language page
soldier soldado soldado acculturation missing See Language page
cat gato gato acculturation 'ĩn 'ĩn unknown See Language page
gun arma, escopeta espingarda, fusil acculturation opogmypãn ('flecha de brasileiro') opogmɨpãn ('flecha de brasileiro') unique See Language page
hat sombero chapéu dress omykyp omɨkɨp unknown See Language page
chief/leader jefe, cacique chefe culture-mythology myj mɨj unknown cf. TG pai See Language page
club garrote, cachiporra clava, porrete subsistence tool nhẽpỹrỹg ñẽpɨ̃rɨ̃g See Language page
loincloth taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla tanga, tapa-sexo dress See Language page
fireplace hogar lareira other See Language page
fishing line cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze linha de pesca subsistence tool See Language page
salt sal sal food tawara 'salty' tawara 'salty' loan - WW %tewe See Language page
song (generic) canción, canto canção culture-mythology hỹrỹnh (vb.) hɨ̃rɨ̃ñ (vb.) unknown See Language page
blowgun cerbatana, pucuna (Peru) zarabatana subsistence tool missing currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region See Language page
dart (blowgun) dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru) dardo, seta subsistence tool nhẽpỹrỹg ɲẽpɨ̃ɾɨ̃g hunting and warfare See Language page
fan abanico abanador, abano subsistence tool missing esp. for fanning a cooking fire See Language page
fish (with line) anzuelear, pescar con linea pescar (com linha) food orhit oɾhit See Language page
fish (with fish-poison) pescar con barbasco, barbasquear pescar com timbó; tinguijar food missing See Language page
hunt cazar caçar food põn põn See Language page
game animal caza, animal de caza caça, animal de caça food hĩm hĩm unknown Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl) cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo cuia subsistence tool mojoto mojoto doubtful loan - WW? %koto/matoko See Language page
grater rallador, rallo ralador, ralo subsistence tool missing esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf) barbacoa jirau subsistence tool missing See Language page
mortar mortero pilão subsistence tool ãm, pynakapa ãm, pɨnakapa unknown See Language page
pestle pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor mão de pilão subsistence tool See Language page
fermented drink masato, chicha caxiri, chicha culture missing prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made See Language page
flour/meal from manioc fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina farinha food missing agriculture See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe beiju food missing usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits See Language page
starch (tapioca, other) almidón goma de tapioca food missing See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau cahuana, caguana mingau food sit sit unknown agriculture See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer) tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca tipiti food missing word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc See Language page
tripod for washing manioc trípode tripé subsistence tool agriculture See Language page
venom for darts, poison veneno curare subsistence tool missing hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?) See Language page
woven strainer/sieve colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru) peneira, cumatá subsistence tool mẽrẽrã mẽɾẽɾã doubtful loan, direction unknown Kwaza, Karitiana, Djeoromitxi agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour See Language page
bait for fishing cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru) isca subsistence tool can refer to worms; more generic See Language page
fishtrap trampa de peces, trampa matapi, cacuri subsistence tool See Language page
bottom grinding stone manufacture kinapyti kinapɨti if different word from top grinding stone See Language page
digging stick subsistence tool See Language page
top grinding stone metate, mano; piedra de moler metate, mano manufacture opi opi use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic) subsistence tool See Language page
spearthrower subsistence tool See Language page
house other ami ami unknown See Language page


Grammatical Data (226)
Category Grammatical Feature Grammatical Feature: Notes Feature Status Grammatical Notes Source Etymology Notes General Notes Phylogenetic Code
Phonology - Segmental Pre-/post-nasalized stops Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive. no Everett 2006:13
Phonology - Segmental Glottalized/ejective consonants Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative] no Everett 2006:13
Phonology - Segmental Palatalized stops Phonemic contrast no Everett 2006:13
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic vowel length Does the language have long and short vowels? yes Everett 2006:15
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels no Everett 2006:15-17
Phonology - Segmental Complex onsets Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme no Everett 2006:15-93
Phonology - Segmental No codas *(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained] no Everett 2006:15-93
Phonology - Segmental Word-final coda required Do all syllables end in a consonant? no Everett 2006:15-93
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive tones Note how many contrastive tones no Everett 2006:107-34
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive stress Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference? no Everett 2006:107-24
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments no Everett 2006:207
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to? no info
Phonology - Suprasegmental Vowel harmony no Everett 2006:203-17
Morphology - General Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb) Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number] yes Aspect markers can also enconded number (of the subject) Everett 2006:278
Morphology - General Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes Stem change, tone no info
Morphology - General Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes) Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word yes Everett 2006:223-95
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing There are many more prefixes than suffixes no Everett 2006:223-317
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing There are many more suffixes than prefixes yes Everett 2006:223-317
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different no Everett 2006:223-317
Morphology - General Reduplication: full The full morpheme is reduplicated yes However, reduplication is not a productive phenomenon. It only happen in less than 20 words and some not all of them fully reduplicate. Everett 2006:210
Morphology - General Reduplication: partial Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated yes However, reduplication is not a productive phenomenon. It only happen in less than 20 words and some not all of them partially reduplicate. Everett 2006:210
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive NN compounding Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced no info more likely not
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV serialization (without compounding) Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection no info more likely not productive
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV compounding Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap' no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Auxiliary verb(s) There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs no info
Morphology - Incorporation Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process Verb contains nominal segment no Everett 2006:223-95
Morphology - Incorporation Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns no Everett 2006:296-317
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classes/genders Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP no There are no noun classifiers in the language whatsoever Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Number of noun classes/genders Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders 0 Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders) Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain. no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates Masculine, feminine, neuter no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system Animate/inanimate, human/non-human no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only no Everett 2006:300-1
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification "Repeater" classifiers Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot" no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals) Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.' no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number Singular number may be marked on the noun Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number Plural affix on noun no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by reduplication of noun no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number Plural word/clitic no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked on human or animate nouns only no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns no It is not stated but it seems that 1st person plural inclusive and 2pl are form by adding /-tʃa/ to the respective singular form and the final nasal of the singular forms is deleted but it leaves compensatoy lenghtening in the vowel as well as nasalizatio Everett 2006:296, 303
Nominal Categories - Number Unique associative plural marker e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them' no Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Definite or specific articles Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only no Everett 2006:296-317
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness no info Everett 2006:296-317
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Indefinite or non-specific article or marker no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you yes Everett 2006:300-1
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound) no Number is ocasionally marked on the verb when aspect markers occur. This does not frequently happen. Everett 2006:348-57
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number) Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system 2 Everett 2006:313-15
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.) yes Visibility and physical contact are distinguished in demonstratives Everett 2006:313-15
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3sg pronouns no Everett 2006:300-4
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3pl pronouns no Everett 2006:300-4
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns no Everett 2006:300-4
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Formal/informal distinction in pronouns Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns no Everett 2006:300-4
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Reflexive pronouns e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix no Based mainly on examples. It seems that reflexive verbs take the intrasive marker /-ɨ/ and the object marker in the verb is refers to the same person as the subject Everett 2006:448
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Adpositions mark core NPs Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients no Everett 2006:264-5
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: number of cases Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun 1 This suffix is attached to non-core arguments Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are yes Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: symmetrical All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity) yes However, the marking of case may be absent in certain morphological contexts. Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: asymmetrical Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates no Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: suffix or postpositional clitic yes Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: prefix or prepositional clitic no Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: infix or inpositional clitic no Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: stem change no Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: tone no Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: comitative = instrumental Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument' no info
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-2 At least some part of the system involves base-2 no Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-5 At least some part of the system involves base-5 yes Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-10 At least some part of the system involves base-10 yes Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Numerals Other base (specify) 4, 20, etc. no Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Numerals Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5 e.g. two = 'eye-quantity' yes Only for 5 ɨj pɨt "our hand" Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 5 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 10 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no Numerals can go up to 100 Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival no Everett 2006:296, 308-12
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Person inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival no Everett 2006:296, 308-12
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N alienable/inalienable? yes However, the juxtaposition is the preferred strategy for possession Everett 2006:303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N alienable/inalienable? no Everett 2006:303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent e.g. 'the boy-'s dog' no info Based on the examples, when there are two full NPs juxtaposition occurs; in other examples with only one full NP the genitive prefix occurs. Thus, this may be evidence for arguing that there is head-marking. Everett 2006:303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head e.g. 'the boy his-dog' no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession Possessive classifiers There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities no Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of inalienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of alienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form no Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of kin terms 'my-father' but *father no Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal) 'my-leg' but *leg no Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man) no info Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Underived adjectives There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes yes Everett 2006:308
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco no Everett 2006:296, 308-12
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival) There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb no Everett 2006:296-300
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer) There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb no Everett 2006:296-300
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song) There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb yes However, this nominalizer may also derive locative, instruments, etc. Everett 2006:296-300
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive verbalizing morphology There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective no info
Nominal Syntax - Other NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently 'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary' no info
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated past marker(s) Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere no Karitiana distinguishes between future and non-future tense Everett 2006:265
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. distant vs. recent past no Everett 2006:265-74
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. imminent vs. distant future no Everett 2006:265-74
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated future or non-past marker(s) yes Karitiana distinguishes between future and non-future tense Everett 2006:265
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: prefix no Everett 2006:265-79
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: suffix yes Everett 2006:265-79
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut no Everett 2006:265-79
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect suppletion no Everett 2006:265-79
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood yes However, it only occurs when the verb ends in a consonant Everett 2006:326;Landin 1980:16-17
Verbal Categories - Mood Polite imperative morpheme There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language) no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses yes It seems that there is a difference in the tone of the last syllable of the verb Storto 1999:104
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative) as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing' no Landin 1980:16-17
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: affix on verb Inflectional marking of capacity to do something no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: verbal construction no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: other marking no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: affix on verb Modal expressing hypothesis no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: verbal construction no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: other marking no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Marking of expected/unexpected action or result There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected no Everett 2006:223-95
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal frustrative Modal expressing frustration ("in vain") no Everett 2006:223-95
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal habitual Modal expressing habituality no Everett 2006:275
Verbal Categories - Mood Apprehensive construction There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens' no Everett 2006:275
Verbal Categories - Mood Reality status marking on verbs There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events' no info more likely not
Verbal Categories - Mood Affect markers (positive/negative) Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative no info more likely not
Verbal Categories - Directionals Directional elements affixed to the verb There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc. no Directionals are attached on the noun Everett 2006:223-95
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized visual Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker no Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized nonvisual Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt) no Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized inferential Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker. no Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized reportive Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly' yes Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized quotative Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse no Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Other evidential Any other evidential values not represented above no Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic yes it is a suffix Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: part of tense system Includes portmanteau morphs no Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: separate particle no Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: modal morpheme no Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Verbal number Verbal number suppletion no There is suppletion in the aspect affix which also encoded number in the verb Everett 2006:348-57
Verbal Categories - Other Social interaction markers Note the type of interaction no Everett 2006:223-95
Word Order No fixed basic constituent order no However, there are dfferent attested constituent orders which may be due to different constructions and information structure Everett 2006:320-1
Word Order VS in intransitive clauses Verb precedes subject no Everett 2006:320-1
Word Order VS in transitive clauses no Everett 2006:320-1
Word Order VO in transitive clauses Verb precedes object yes Everett 2006:320-1
Word Order OS in transitive clauses Object precedes subject no Everett 2006:320-1
Word Order Preposition-Noun no Everett 2006:304-5
Word Order Noun-Postposition or case suffix yes Everett 2006:304-5
Word Order Gen-Noun Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book) yes Based only on word order since the possessum does not take any affix Everett 2006:303-4
Word Order Noun-Gen Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John') no Everett 2006:303-4
Word Order Adj-Noun Adjective precedes the noun no Everett 2006:308-12
Word Order Noun-Adj Adjective follows the noun yes Everett 2006:308-12
Word Order Dem-Noun no However, when the "article" /aka/ occurs in the sentence, the demonstrative occurs before the noun Everett 2006:314
Word Order Noun-Dem yes Everett 2006:314
Word Order Num-Noun yes Everett 2006:315
Word Order Noun-Num no Everett 2006:315
Word Order Noun-Rel Relative clause follows noun that it modifies yes based on examples Everett 2006:383-4
Word Order Rel-Noun Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies no Everett 2006:383-4
Word Order Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative) e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away') no Everett 2006:383-4
Word Order Relative clause is correlative or adjoined e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat' no Everett 2006:383-4
Word Order Question word is clause initial 'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause yes Everett 2006:324
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects no The language shows a neuter allignment in which S, A and O gets zero case-marking Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked no Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker no Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers no Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep) no Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative no it is not stated explicitly but it seems that pronouns behaves in a similar fashion to nouns with respect to case. Further, free pronouns refer to absolutive. Everett 2006:300, 304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative no Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite no Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive no Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs no Everett 2006:300
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other yes The absolutive argument is cross-referenced in the verb; the ergative is not. Everett 2006:300
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive no Everett 2006:300
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3) no Everett 2006:300
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: split More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc. yes it seems that intransitive verbs show the ergative pattern whereas transitive verbs show a neutral patter. However, transitive may take the agreement markers when taking some other morphology. Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects yes Everett 2006:302
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option) yes Only for intransitive subjects Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option) no Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. no Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects no Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking on intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes yes Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers no But they can do it if some further morphology is added. Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take object (P) markers no Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects 3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system yes Based on examples Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects 3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system yes But all persons are zero Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Number can be marked separately from person on the verb Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately no Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes yes Everett 2006:300
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Gender distinguished in verbal person markers For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent no Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: indirect object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently yes Everett 2006:304-8
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: double object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives no Everett 2006:304-8
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: secondary object In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently no Everett 2006:304-8
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal. no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reflexive: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive. no Everett 2006:445-51
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Passive Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted yes Everett 2006:430-7
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Antipassive Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages no There is no an antipassive morpheme. However, the author argues that there is antipassivization in the language since an object can be demoted. Everett 2006:438
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Other intransitivizing morphology There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency yes middle voice whch is marked by a construction in which the transitive verb takes the intransitive prefix /ɨ-/ Everett 2006:445-51
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: benefactive Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: other Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: prefix Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb yes Everett 2006:440
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: suffix Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb no Everett 2006:440
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix no Everett 2006:440
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: serial verb or analytical construction Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization yes Used to show that the causee reatins certain degree of contron over the action Everett 2006:442
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy' Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.' no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated sociative Indicates that causer participates in event no Everett 2006:440-5
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence) There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency no info
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a preposed element Clausal negator is a preposed element yes It only occurs when the verb ends i a consonant Everett 2006:328-9
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a postposed element Clausal negator is a postposed element no Everett 2006:328-9
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: affix Negatives: affix yes Everett 2006:328-9
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: particle Negatives: particle no Everett 2006:328-9
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: auxiliary verb Negatives: auxiliary verb no Everett 2006:328-9
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: double Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas' no Everett 2006:328-9
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist' no info
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative expression 'I don't know' Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase no info
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: interrogative particle Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle yes This particle is sentence-finally. However, the interrogative particle is optional. The main difference between interrogative and declarative sentences is that the former does not inflect for many categories as the latter does. Everett 2006:322:3
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: verb morphology Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology no Everett 2006:322:3
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: word order Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) no Everett 2006:322:3
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: intonation only Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only no Everett 2006:322:3
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Content questions: word order differs from declaratives Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.) no The same strategy as yes/no questions is used Everett 2006:322:3
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: verbal Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position yes Based mainly on examples Everett 2006:309-10
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: nominal Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all) no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head) no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses. no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause no Everett 2006:296
Simple Clauses - Predication Relativizer is a verbal affix no There is no relativizer Everett 2006:381
Simple Clauses - Predication Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes) no Everett 2006:381
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions Grammaticalized verbal desiderative Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it) yes Everett 2006:279-80
Simple Clauses - Other Clause chaining Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause. no info
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked switch-reference system There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined no info
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence no info