Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Karitiana

Family: Tupian
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: ktn
Location: -9.38°, -64.15°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data

Data Sources: Everett, Caleb. 2006. Patterns in Karitiana: Articulation, Perception and Grammar. Rice University, PhD dissertation. Galucio, Ana Vilacy; Meira, Sérgio; Birchall, Joshua; Moore, Denny; Gabas Júnior, Nilson; Drude, Sebastian; Storto, Luciana; Picanḉo, Gessiane; Rodrigues, Carmen Reis. 2015. Genealogical relations and lexical distances within the Tupí linguistic family: a lexicostatistical and phylogenetic approach. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi. Ciências Humanas, 10.2:229-274. Landin, David J. 1980. An outline of the syntactic structure of Karitiana sentences. University College, London. (MA thesis). Landin, David J. 1983. Diccionário e léxico Karitiana/Portugues. SIL, Brasília. Storto, Luciana. 1999. Aspects of a Karitiana Grammar. PhD dissertation, MIT.

Basic Vocabulary (191)

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
above	encima, arriba	acima	location			missing			See Language page
and	y	e	grammar	tỹm	tɨ̃m				See Language page
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	isorokoj	isoɾokoj	unknown			See Language page
at	en, a	em, a	location						See Language page
back	espalda	costas	body	okyty	okɨ̃tɨ̃	inheritance			See Language page
bad	mal	mal	quality			missing			See Language page
belly	barriga	barriga	body	kõnh	kõɲ	unknown			See Language page
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location			missing			See Language page
big	grande	grande	quality	tyy	tɨɨ	inheritance			See Language page
black	negro	preto	colour			missing			See Language page
blood	sangre	sangue	body	ge	ge	unknown			See Language page
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body			missing			See Language page
bone	hueso	osso	body	´ep	ʔep	unknown	compare Arawak		See Language page
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	nõm	nõm	unknown			See Language page
child	niño, niña	criança	human	õwã	õwã	unknown			See Language page
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment	esyra, pãmpipok	esɨɾa, pãmpipok	unknown			See Language page
cold	frío	frio	quality	keõ´n	keõʔn	unknown			See Language page
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality			missing			See Language page
day	día	dia	time	kat	kat	unknown			See Language page
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	ẽm	ẽm	unknown			See Language page
dingo/wolf			fauna						See Language page
dry	seco	seco	quality	pipaseep	pipaseep	unknown			See Language page
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality						See Language page
dust	polvo	poeira	environment			missing			See Language page
ear	oreja	orelha	body	opirisap	opiɾisap	unknown			See Language page
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	ejepi, eje´ĩn	ejepi, ejeʔĩn	unknown			See Language page
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	sypi	sɨpi	inheritance			See Language page
eye	ojo	olho	body	sypo	sɨpo	unknown			See Language page
far	lejos	longe	quality	opa	opa	unknown			See Language page
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body			missing			See Language page
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	´it (masculine ego), syp (feminine ego)	ʔit, sɨp	unknown			See Language page
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	sop	sop	unknown			See Language page
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	iso	iso	unknown			See Language page
flower	flor	flor	environment	ewosiit	ewosiit	unknown			See Language page
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment						See Language page
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	epe´o	epeʔo	unknown			See Language page
good	bueno	bom	quality	se´a	seʔa	unknown			See Language page
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	osop, osopot	osop, osopot	unknown			See Language page
hand	mano	mão	body	py	pɨ	inheritance			See Language page
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	i	i	inheritance			See Language page
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	´o	ʔo	unknown			See Language page
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	pyti	pɨti	inheritance			See Language page
how?	como	como	grammar	tikat	tikat	unknown			See Language page
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	y, ỹn, ỹnỹ	ɨ, ɨ̃n, ɨ̃nɨ̃	unknown		For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms	See Language page
if	si	se	grammar	tykit	tɨkit				See Language page
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	kypip, pip	kɨpip, pip	inheritance			See Language page
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body			missing			See Language page
lake	lago	lago	environment	esekarawa	esekaɾawa	unknown			See Language page
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	epesap (ep{tree}-esap?)	epesap	unknown			See Language page
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	põnh	põɲ	unknown			See Language page
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body			missing			See Language page
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	pãmpi haryhary	pãmpi haɾɨhaɾɨ	unknown			See Language page
liver	hígado	figado	body	kyry	kɨɾɨ	unknown			See Language page
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	horop	hoɾop	unknown			See Language page
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	gep	gep	inheritance		order Phtiraptera	See Language page
man/male	hombre	homem	human	taso	taso	unknown			See Language page
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	hĩm	hĩm	unknown			See Language page
moon	luna	lua	environment	oti	oti	inheritance			See Language page
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	ti	ti	inheritance			See Language page
mouth	boca	boca	body	koromo	koɾomo	unknown			See Language page
name	nombre	nome	human	sat	sat	unknown			See Language page
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	mypi	mɨpi	unknown			See Language page
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body						See Language page
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	hyto	hɨto	unknown			See Language page
new	nuevo	novo	quality	got, opit	got, opit	unknown; inheritance			See Language page
night	noche	noite	time	nip, mõnh	nip, mõɲ	unknown; unknown			See Language page
no/not	no	não	grammar	o´ĩ	oʔĩ	unknown			See Language page
nose	nariz	nariz	body	nhõpi´op	ɲõpiʔop	unknown			See Language page
old	viejo	velho	quality	hyk	hɨk	unknown			See Language page
one	uno	um	number	mỹhĩn	mɨ̃hĩn	unknown			See Language page
other	otro	outro	grammar	otat, pojogo	otat, pojogo	unknown			See Language page
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body			missing			See Language page
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	ota	ota	unknown			See Language page
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	e	e	unknown			See Language page
red	rojo	vermelho	colour			missing			See Language page
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body			missing			See Language page
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	pa, ky´op	pa, kɨʔop	inheritance			See Language page
root	raíz	raiz	flora	epkyjymy	epkɨjɨmɨ	unknown			See Language page
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	nãm	nãm	inheritance			See Language page
sand	arena	areia	environment	eje´ĩn	ejeʔɨ̃n	inheritance			See Language page
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	ky´e	kɨʔe	unknown			See Language page
short	corto	curto	quality	okỹn, tek	okɨ̃n, tek	unknown			See Language page
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	oke	oke	unknown			See Language page
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental			missing			See Language page
skin	piel	pele	body	pa, pykyp	pa, pɨkɨp	inheritance			See Language page
sky	cielo	céu	environment	pãmpi	pãmpi	unknown			See Language page
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	´ĩn	ʔɨ̃n	unknown			See Language page
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	iso nhĩng, nhĩga	iso ɲĩng, ɲĩga	inheritance			See Language page
star	estrella	estrela	environment	otirypo	otiɾɨpo	unknown			See Language page
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora			missing			See Language page
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	kinapyti	kinapɨti	unknown			See Language page
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	peteppa	peteppa	unknown			See Language page
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar			missing			See Language page
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar			missing			See Language page
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	paneto, patyrat	paneto, patɨɾat	unknown			See Language page
thin	delgado	fino	quality	ewet	ewet	unknown			See Language page
this	este/esta	este	grammar	ã	ã	inheritance			See Language page
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	a	a	unknown			See Language page
throat	garganta	garganta	body	nãmỹngyn	nãmɨ̃ngɨn	unknown			See Language page
three	tres	tres	number	mỹnhỹm	mɨ̃ɲɨ̃m	unknown			See Language page
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment			missing			See Language page
bite	morder	morder	body	okot	okot	unknown			See Language page
blow	soplar	soprar	body	he	he	unknown			See Language page
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	hãn	hãn	unknown			See Language page
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	pipop	pipop	unknown			See Language page
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body			missing			See Language page
climb	subir	subir	motion	amo	amo	unknown			See Language page
come	venir	vir	motion			missing			See Language page
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	otet	otet	unknown			See Language page
count	contar	contar	mental	pasag	pasag	unknown			See Language page
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	hyryp	hɨrɨp	unknown			See Language page
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	sing	sing	unknown			See Language page
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	owi, pop	owi, pop	unknown			See Language page
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	pyryt	pɨrɨt	unknown			See Language page
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	kaaj	kaaj	unknown			See Language page
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	hay, se´y	haɨ, seʔɨ	unknown			See Language page
eat	comer	comer	body	pyt´y	pɨtʔɨ	unknown			See Language page
fall	caer	cair	motion	ako, ´ot	ako, ʔot	unknown			See Language page
fear	miedo	medo	mental	opipatin (be afraid)	opipatin	unknown			See Language page
flow	fluir	fluir	motion			missing			See Language page
fly	volar	voar	motion			missing			See Language page
grow	crecer	crescer	state	kerep	keɾep	unknown			See Language page
hear	oír	ouvir	mental			missing			See Language page
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	hej	hej	unknown			See Language page
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	mĩ	mĩ	unknown			See Language page
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	kak	kak	unknown			See Language page
kill	matar	matar	impact	oky	okɨ	inheritance			See Language page
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	nonyp (know a fact), pypyn (know how)	nonɨp, pɨpɨn	unknown			See Language page
laugh	reír	rir	mental	haha (onomatopoeia)	haha	unknown			See Language page
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	amo, nẽg	amo, nẽg	unknown; inheritance			See Language page
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body			missing			See Language page
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other			missing			See Language page
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	mĩ	mĩ				See Language page
say	decir	dizer	mental			missing			See Language page
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact	sik	sik	unknown			See Language page
see	ver	ver	mental			missing			See Language page
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	atsykat	atsɨkat	unknown			See Language page
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	amik, mik	amik, mik	inheritance			See Language page
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	kat	kat	inheritance			See Language page
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	hĩn, hynnãnã	hĩn, hɨnnãnã	unknown		primarily transitive	See Language page
spit	escupir	cuspir	body			missing			See Language page
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	soky	sokɨ	inheritance			See Language page
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact			missing			See Language page
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact			missing			See Language page
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state			missing			See Language page
steal	robar	roubar	other	pytag	pɨtag	unknown			See Language page
suck	chupar	chupar	body	nẽ´õm	nẽʔõm	unknown			See Language page
swell	hincharse	inchar	body			missing			See Language page
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	taktag	taktag	unknown			See Language page
think	pensar	pensar	mental	koro´ophan	koɾoʔophan	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Wari'		See Language page
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	atsykat	atsɨkat	inheritance?			See Language page
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	soko´ĩ	sokoʔĩ	unknown			See Language page
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other			missing		may be transitive or intransitive	See Language page
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body			missing			See Language page
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	sing, tek	sing, tek	unknown; unknown			See Language page
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other			missing			See Language page
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body			missing			See Language page
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	koromopi´yp	koɾomopiʔɨp	unknown			See Language page
tooth	diente	dente	body	nhõnh	ɲõɲ	unknown			See Language page
two	dos	dois	number	sypõm	sɨpõm	unknown			See Language page
water	agua	agua	environment	ese	ese	unknown			See Language page
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	yj (com v.i.), yjja (com v.i.)	ɨj	inheritance		no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted	See Language page
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar	yta	ɨta	unknown			See Language page
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	semok	semok	unknown			See Language page
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	mõramõn	mõɾamõn	unknown			See Language page
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	tikat	tikat	unknown			See Language page
where?	donde	onde	grammar	ta´i (where is it?)	taʔi	unknown			See Language page
white	blanco	branco	colour	pok	pok	unknown			See Language page
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	mõra	mõɾa	unknown			See Language page
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	sooj	sooj	unknown			See Language page
wind	viento	vento	environment			missing			See Language page
wing	ala	asa	body	papa´ep	papaʔep	inheritance			See Language page
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	nhõnso	ɲõnso	unknown			See Language page
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	kyrysiiry	kɨrɨsiirɨ	unknown			See Language page
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar			missing			See Language page
foot	pie	pé	body	pi	pi	inheritance			See Language page
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar			missing			See Language page
all	todo	todos	other	arahot	aɾahot	unknown			See Language page
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body			missing			See Language page
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body			missing			See Language page
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body			missing			See Language page
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	hanĩmpa pawak	hanĩmpa pawak	unknown			See Language page
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body			missing			See Language page
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body	kyj	kɨj				See Language page
bark	corteza	casca	environment	pykyp	pɨkɨp	unknown			See Language page
fingernail	uña	unha	body	pysokõn	pɨsokõn	unknown			See Language page
heart	corazón	coração	body	hanĩmpa	hanĩmpa	unknown			See Language page
sun	sol	sol	time	go, gokyp	go, gokɨp	unknown			See Language page
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	neso	neso	unknown			See Language page
green	verde	verde	quality			missing			See Language page
hot	caliente	quente	quality	oky	okɨ	inheritance			See Language page

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Loan Source	Source	Distribution	General Notes
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.	asori	asoɾi		unknown		See Language page
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		ĩnh	ĩnh		unknown		See Language page
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.	misỹ	misɨ̃		inheritance		See Language page	Amazonia
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.	nhe´okõm	ɲeʔokõm		unknown		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans	sỹnh	sɨ̃ɲ		unknown		See Language page	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.	pa´ỹj	paʔɨ̃j		unknown		See Language page	Different types have different localized ranges
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae	õhõrõrõ	õhõɾõɾõ		unknown		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	yjora	ɨjoɾa		unknown		See Language page	Widespread
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae				missing		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes				missing		See Language page	Widespread
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.	pat	pat		unknown		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica				missing		See Language page	Widespread
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae				missing		See Language page
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae	pypỹrĩ	pɨpɨ̃ɾĩ		unknown		See Language page
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae	´akyry, kinanãm	ʔakɨɾɨ, kinanãm		unknown		See Language page	Widespread South America
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family	kyky	kɨkɨ		unknown		See Language page
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba	okorojo, kennõpokojẽg	okoɾojo, kennõpokojẽg		unknown		See Language page	Widespread South America
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae	yrypãn	ɨɾɨpãn		unknown		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	omãkymy´em (lit. onca mimada)	omãkɨmɨʔem		semantic shift	jaguar	See Language page	Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis						See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)	ojopyty	ojopɨtɨ		unknown		See Language page	Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	sosy	sosɨ		unknown		See Language page	Widespread in Amazonia
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.				missing		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	osy, saara	osɨ, saaɾa		unknown		See Language page	Throughout Amazonia	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus	nhỹgty	ɲɨ̃gtɨ		unknown		See Language page
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		ip	ip		inheritance		See Language page
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.	itot	itot				See Language page
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae	isõnhõ	isõɲõ		unknown		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.				missing		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.	nhõpeko	ɲõpeko				See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.	ipimyj	ipimɨj				See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	kyryryt	kɨɾɨɾɨt				See Language page
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.				missing		See Language page		iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata				missing		See Language page
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.				missing		See Language page
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura	are	aɾe		unknown		See Language page
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes				missing		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae				missing		See Language page
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		moroja	moɾoja		inheritance		See Language page
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox				missing		See Language page	Widespread South America
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	myp	mɨp		unknown		See Language page	Widespread
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis				missing		See Language page	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)				missing		See Language page		prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba				missing		See Language page	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.	iri	iɾi		unknown		See Language page	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa	pojo	pojo				See Language page	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	trunks contain sago-like starch
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana				missing		See Language page	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	palm
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea				missing		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes	ɲõɲ mɨt [bɨt]	ɲõɲ mɨt [bɨt]	peach palm (pupunha)	unknown		Galucio et al. 2015: 269
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua	ewy	ewɨ				See Language page	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia	may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca				missing		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	plant
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)	erery	eɾeɾɨ		unknown		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra				missing		See Language page	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	tree
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens	sojo	sojo		unknown		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	plant
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea	mĩ´ĩ	mĩʔĩ				See Language page		plant
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus	kojpa	kojpa		unknown		See Language page		plant
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum						See Language page	tropical regions, especially river banks	plant
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.	asyryty	asɨɾɨtɨ		unknown		See Language page		Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.				missing		See Language page		plant
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)				missing		See Language page
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	gijo	gijo		unknown		See Language page	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	plant
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum				missing		See Language page		plant
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		ep	ep		unknown		See Language page
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana				missing		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	shrub
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.	eemyk, mẽrẽ´õn	eemɨk, mẽɾẽʔõn		unknown; doubtful loan (cf. Tukanoan mene)		See Language page	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana				missing		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala						See Language page	secondary forests, native to Brazil	tree
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']	minhõ	miɲõ				See Language page	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	tree
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum	iriwohy	iɾiwohɨ		unknown		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana	kinapasoj	kinapasoj		unknown		See Language page	widespread lowland SA	shrub
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura						See Language page		large tree
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.	goharara	gohaɾaɾa				See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	tree
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui						See Language page	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia				missing		See Language page	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	a tree; not a true grape
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	gok	gok		unknown		See Language page	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta				missing		See Language page	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum						See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	ohy	ohɨ		unknown		See Language page		plant
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.	pokoho	pokoho				See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	plant
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.				missing		See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	mojoto	mojoto				See Language page	indigenous gardens	plant; tree
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.	pasi	pasi		unknown		See Language page		plant
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.	teppy	teppɨ				See Language page	secondary forest, floodplain	vine
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.	tig, topyk	tig, topɨk		unknown	maybe cognate 'tingui' (fish w/ timbo)	See Language page	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	shrub/tree
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi				missing		See Language page	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	vine
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola						See Language page
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic						See Language page
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae						See Language page
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata	nõpiowojo, nõpi	nõpiowojo, nõpi		unknown		See Language page
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.	mĩgo	mĩgo		unknown		See Language page
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	eet, esõmõra, õn	eet, esõmõɾa, õn		unknown		See Language page
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria				missing		See Language page
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae				missing		See Language page
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	kynkon	kɨnkon		unknown		See Language page
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera						See Language page
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	gyryjy	gɨɾɨjɨ		unknown		See Language page
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda	pasẽn, tĩ´ĩ´ipa	pasẽn, tĩʔĩʔipa				See Language page
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones	kennõn	kennõn		unknown		See Language page
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea	pettera, eti, inõinõ	petteɾa, eti, inõinõ		unknown		See Language page
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	kinãmẽn	kinãmẽn		unknown		See Language page
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	mãrãm	mãɾãm		inheritance		See Language page
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae	pasẽn	pasẽn		unknown		See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.	yro, kentak	ɨɾo, kentak		unknown		See Language page
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae						See Language page
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	tik	tik		unknown		See Language page
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera	gypy	gɨpɨ		inheritance		See Language page
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea	ororojo	oɾoɾojo		unknown		See Language page
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita	mẽwõ	mẽwõ		unknown		See Language page
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda	nõrõnh	nõɾõnh		unknown		See Language page
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae				missing		See Language page
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	omãky	omãkɨ		unknown		See Language page
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.						See Language page
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha				missing		See Language page
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]				missing		See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella	pikkõn	pikkõn		unknown		See Language page
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons				missing		See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus				missing		See Language page
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae				missing		See Language page
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis				missing		See Language page
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis	toro	toɾo		unknown		See Language page
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu				missing		See Language page
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari	sojjaty	sojjatɨ		unknown		See Language page
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae	koroko	koɾoko		unknown		See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua	irisa	iɾisa		unknown		See Language page
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	mỹno	mɨ̃no		unknown		See Language page
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris	syhej	sɨhej		unknown		See Language page
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti				missing		See Language page
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)	moroty	moɾotɨ		unknown		See Language page
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus				missing		See Language page
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae				missing		See Language page
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	´irip	ʔiɾip		inheritance		See Language page
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	ne	ne		unknown		See Language page
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus						See Language page

Cultural Vocabulary (97)

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	omi	omi	unknown	cf. Itonama omoʔo		See Language page
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material						See Language page
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material			missing			See Language page
bed	cama	cama	culture-material	katapa	katapa	unknown			See Language page
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	eremy	eɾemɨ	unknown			See Language page
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	mikipa	mikipa	inheritance	from 'sit'		See Language page
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	gojo	gojo	unknown			See Language page
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture			missing		Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology			missing			See Language page
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology	pyharỹnh	pɨhaɾɨ̃ɲ	unknown		In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology					Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material			missing			See Language page
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	pykyp	pɨkɨp	unknown			See Language page
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other			missing		may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page
firewood	leña	lenha	other	sõg	sõg	unknown			See Language page
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology					malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	pysãmẽn	pɨsãmẽn	unknown			See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology	motỹnh	motɨ̃ɲ	unknown		In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology	nhewy, sowy	ɲewɨ, sowɨ	unknown		multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology						See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics						See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology						See Language page
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	tãnh	tãɲ	unknown			See Language page
machete	machete	facão	culture-material			missing			See Language page
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	hikɨnɨt	hikynyt	unknown		especially for clearing fields	See Language page
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	mypãn	mɨpãn	unknown		hunting, warfare	See Language page
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	nhẽpỹrỹg	ɲẽpɨ̃ɾɨ̃g	unknown			See Language page
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	or´ep	oɾʔep	unknown		arco	See Language page
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	eppa	eppa	unknown			See Language page
plate	plato	prato	culture-material			missing			See Language page
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	mɨt	myt	doubtful loan	Trinitario met-si; Tacanan meči		See Language page
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material			missing			See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool			missing		agriculture?	See Language page
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology			missing			See Language page
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool	okɨ	oky	semantic shift	from beeswax		See Language page
wax	cera	cera	other	oky	okɨ	unknown			See Language page
honey	miel	mel	food	eetese, mookose, õnse	eetese, mookose, õnse	unknown		only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material						See Language page
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	takipa	takipa	unknown			See Language page
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology						See Language page
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material			missing			See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology					a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology						See Language page
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology						See Language page
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology						See Language page
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology						See Language page
school	escuela	escola	acculturation						See Language page
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation						See Language page
paper	papel	papel	acculturation			missing			See Language page
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	kaaj (vb.)	kaaj (vb.)				See Language page
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	opogako	opogako	unknown			See Language page
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology						See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other						See Language page
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	tẽm ('cana')	tẽm ('cana')				See Language page
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material			missing			See Language page
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress	pipykyp	pipɨkɨp				See Language page
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation						See Language page
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation			missing			See Language page
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	'ĩn	'ĩn	unknown			See Language page
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	opogmypãn ('flecha de brasileiro')	opogmɨpãn ('flecha de brasileiro')	unique			See Language page
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	omykyp	omɨkɨp	unknown			See Language page
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	myj	mɨj	unknown	cf. TG pai		See Language page
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool	nhẽpỹrỹg	ñẽpɨ̃rɨ̃g				See Language page
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress						See Language page
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other						See Language page
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool						See Language page
salt	sal	sal	food	tawara 'salty'	tawara 'salty'	loan - WW	%tewe		See Language page
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology	hỹrỹnh (vb.)	hɨ̃rɨ̃ñ (vb.)	unknown			See Language page
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool			missing		currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool	nhẽpỹrỹg	ɲẽpɨ̃ɾɨ̃g			hunting and warfare	See Language page
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool			missing		esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	orhit	oɾhit				See Language page
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food			missing			See Language page
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	põn	põn				See Language page
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food	hĩm	hĩm	unknown		Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	mojoto	mojoto	doubtful loan - WW?	%koto/matoko		See Language page
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool			missing		esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool			missing			See Language page
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool	ãm, pynakapa	ãm, pɨnakapa	unknown			See Language page
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool						See Language page
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture			missing		prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food			missing		agriculture	See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food			missing		usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food			missing			See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food	sit	sit	unknown		agriculture	See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food			missing		word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool					agriculture	See Language page
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool			missing		hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	mẽrẽrã	mẽɾẽɾã	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Kwaza, Karitiana, Djeoromitxi	agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool					can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool						See Language page
bottom grinding stone			manufacture	kinapyti	kinapɨti			if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool						See Language page
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture	opi	opi			use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool						See Language page
spearthrower			subsistence tool						See Language page
house			other	ami	ami	unknown			See Language page

Grammatical Data (226)

Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no		Everett 2006:13
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Everett 2006:13
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no		Everett 2006:13
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	yes		Everett 2006:15
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Everett 2006:15-17
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Everett 2006:15-93
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	no		Everett 2006:15-93
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Everett 2006:15-93
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no		Everett 2006:107-34
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no		Everett 2006:107-24
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no		Everett 2006:207
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no info
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no		Everett 2006:203-17
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	yes	Aspect markers can also enconded number (of the subject)	Everett 2006:278
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no info
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes		Everett 2006:223-95
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Everett 2006:223-317
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Everett 2006:223-317
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Everett 2006:223-317
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	yes	However, reduplication is not a productive phenomenon. It only happen in less than 20 words and some not all of them fully reduplicate.	Everett 2006:210
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	yes	However, reduplication is not a productive phenomenon. It only happen in less than 20 words and some not all of them partially reduplicate.	Everett 2006:210
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	no info	more likely not
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no info	more likely not productive
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	no info
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	no		Everett 2006:223-95
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no		Everett 2006:296-317
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	no	There are no noun classifiers in the language whatsoever	Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	0		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	no		Everett 2006:300-1
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no	It is not stated but it seems that 1st person plural inclusive and 2pl are form by adding /-tʃa/ to the respective singular form and the final nasal of the singular forms is deleted but it leaves compensatoy lenghtening in the vowel as well as nasalizatio	Everett 2006:296, 303
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no		Everett 2006:296
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no		Everett 2006:296-317
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no info		Everett 2006:296-317
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	yes		Everett 2006:300-1
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no	Number is ocasionally marked on the verb when aspect markers occur. This does not frequently happen.	Everett 2006:348-57
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	2		Everett 2006:313-15
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		yes	Visibility and physical contact are distinguished in demonstratives	Everett 2006:313-15
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		no		Everett 2006:300-4
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no		Everett 2006:300-4
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Everett 2006:300-4
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Everett 2006:300-4
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no	Based mainly on examples. It seems that reflexive verbs take the intrasive marker /-ɨ/ and the object marker in the verb is refers to the same person as the subject	Everett 2006:448
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	no		Everett 2006:264-5
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	1	This suffix is attached to non-core arguments	Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	yes		Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	yes	However, the marking of case may be absent in certain morphological contexts.	Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no		Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Everett 2006:304-8
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no info
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no		Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	yes		Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	yes		Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no		Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	yes	Only for 5 ɨj pɨt "our hand"	Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no	Numerals can go up to 100	Everett 2006:315-7
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no		Everett 2006:296, 308-12
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no		Everett 2006:296, 308-12
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes	However, the juxtaposition is the preferred strategy for possession	Everett 2006:303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Everett 2006:303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no info	Based on the examples, when there are two full NPs juxtaposition occurs; in other examples with only one full NP the genitive prefix occurs. Thus, this may be evidence for arguing that there is head-marking.	Everett 2006:303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no		Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no		Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	no		Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	no		Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no info		Everett 2006:296, 303-4
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	yes		Everett 2006:308
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	no		Everett 2006:296, 308-12
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	no		Everett 2006:296-300
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	no		Everett 2006:296-300
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	yes	However, this nominalizer may also derive locative, instruments, etc.	Everett 2006:296-300
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	no info
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no info
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	no	Karitiana distinguishes between future and non-future tense	Everett 2006:265
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no		Everett 2006:265-74
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no		Everett 2006:265-74
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		yes	Karitiana distinguishes between future and non-future tense	Everett 2006:265
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Everett 2006:265-79
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Everett 2006:265-79
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Everett 2006:265-79
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Everett 2006:265-79
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	yes	However, it only occurs when the verb ends in a consonant	Everett 2006:326;Landin 1980:16-17
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no info
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	yes	It seems that there is a difference in the tone of the last syllable of the verb	Storto 1999:104
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no		Landin 1980:16-17
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no info
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no info
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no info
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no info
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no info
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no info
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no		Everett 2006:223-95
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	no		Everett 2006:223-95
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	no		Everett 2006:275
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no		Everett 2006:275
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no info	more likely not
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no info	more likely not
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	no	Directionals are attached on the noun	Everett 2006:223-95
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no		Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no		Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no		Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	yes		Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no		Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no		Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		yes	it is a suffix	Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no		Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Everett 2006:281-4
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no	There is suppletion in the aspect affix which also encoded number in the verb	Everett 2006:348-57
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no		Everett 2006:223-95
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no	However, there are dfferent attested constituent orders which may be due to different constructions and information structure	Everett 2006:320-1
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no		Everett 2006:320-1
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no		Everett 2006:320-1
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	yes		Everett 2006:320-1
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no		Everett 2006:320-1
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Everett 2006:304-5
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Everett 2006:304-5
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes	Based only on word order since the possessum does not take any affix	Everett 2006:303-4
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no		Everett 2006:303-4
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	no		Everett 2006:308-12
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	yes		Everett 2006:308-12
Word Order	Dem-Noun		no	However, when the "article" /aka/ occurs in the sentence, the demonstrative occurs before the noun	Everett 2006:314
Word Order	Noun-Dem		yes		Everett 2006:314
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes		Everett 2006:315
Word Order	Noun-Num		no		Everett 2006:315
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes	based on examples	Everett 2006:383-4
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Everett 2006:383-4
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no		Everett 2006:383-4
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Everett 2006:383-4
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Everett 2006:324
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	no	The language shows a neuter allignment in which S, A and O gets zero case-marking	Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no		Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		no	it is not stated explicitly but it seems that pronouns behaves in a similar fashion to nouns with respect to case. Further, free pronouns refer to absolutive.	Everett 2006:300, 304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no		Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Everett 2006:304-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	no		Everett 2006:300
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	yes	The absolutive argument is cross-referenced in the verb; the ergative is not.	Everett 2006:300
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Everett 2006:300
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Everett 2006:300
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	yes	it seems that intransitive verbs show the ergative pattern whereas transitive verbs show a neutral patter. However, transitive may take the agreement markers when taking some other morphology.	Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes		Everett 2006:302
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes	Only for intransitive subjects	Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	yes		Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	no	But they can do it if some further morphology is added.	Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	no		Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	yes	Based on examples	Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	yes	But all persons are zero	Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no		Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	yes		Everett 2006:300
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	no		Everett 2006:343-57
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	yes		Everett 2006:304-8
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no		Everett 2006:304-8
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no		Everett 2006:304-8
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	no		Everett 2006:445-51
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes		Everett 2006:430-7
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no	There is no an antipassive morpheme. However, the author argues that there is antipassivization in the language since an object can be demoted.	Everett 2006:438
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	yes	middle voice whch is marked by a construction in which the transitive verb takes the intransitive prefix /ɨ-/	Everett 2006:445-51
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	yes		Everett 2006:440
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	no		Everett 2006:440
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Everett 2006:440
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	yes	Used to show that the causee reatins certain degree of contron over the action	Everett 2006:442
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no		Everett 2006:440-5
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no info
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	yes	It only occurs when the verb ends i a consonant	Everett 2006:328-9
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no		Everett 2006:328-9
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	yes		Everett 2006:328-9
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	no		Everett 2006:328-9
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Everett 2006:328-9
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Everett 2006:328-9
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no info
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no info
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	yes	This particle is sentence-finally. However, the interrogative particle is optional. The main difference between interrogative and declarative sentences is that the former does not inflect for many categories as the latter does.	Everett 2006:322:3
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Everett 2006:322:3
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Everett 2006:322:3
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	no		Everett 2006:322:3
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no	The same strategy as yes/no questions is used	Everett 2006:322:3
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	yes	Based mainly on examples	Everett 2006:309-10
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no info
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	no info
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	no info
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no info
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no		Everett 2006:296
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		no	There is no relativizer	Everett 2006:381
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no		Everett 2006:381
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	yes		Everett 2006:279-80
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no info
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no info
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	no info