Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors

Aché

Family
Tupian
Region
South America
ISO 639-3
guq
Location
-25.59°, -56.47°
Notes
Features
Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Data Sources
Heckart, Claudia J. & Kim Hill. 2007. Aché. Intercontinental Dictionary Series, ed. Mary Ritchie Key. http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/ids/. Rossler, Eva-María. 2008. Aspectos da gramática Ache. Masters thesis, UNICAMP. Susnik, Branislava. 1974. Estudios Guayaki: sistema fonético y temático. Museo Etnográfico "Andrés Barbero", Asunción.


Basic Vocabulary (191)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes General Notes Source
above encima, arriba acima location yabu unknown See Language page
and y e grammar See Language page
ash ceniza(s) cinzas environment krẽbo doubtful loan Itonama koropo See Language page
at en, a em, a location See Language page
back espalda costas body pɨče unique See Language page
bad mal mal quality bučã unique See Language page
belly barriga barriga body yeʔe unique See Language page
below abajo, debajo abaixo location wɨǰi inheritance See Language page
big grande grande quality waču inheritance See Language page
black negro preto colour braʔa unique See Language page
blood sangre sangue body bu-ɨʔɨ inheritance See Language page
boil/pimple espinilla, granos espinha, borbulha body bopo unknown See Language page
bone hueso osso body ikã inheritance See Language page
breast pecho, seno peito body kãʔã inheritance See Language page
child niño, niña criança human krumi inheritance See Language page
cloud nube nuvem environment bakɨ rei unique See Language page
cold frío frio quality duɨʔɨ inheritance See Language page
correct/true verdad, de veras verdade quality ǰãpã-yãdɨ unknown See Language page
day día dia time kreɨbu unique See Language page
dirty sucio sujo quality aǰu bučã unique See Language page
dingo/wolf fauna See Language page
dry seco seco quality ǰɨpi unknown See Language page
dull/blunt sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo maçante, desamolado, não afiado quality akua-yã See Language page
dust polvo poeira environment mo tãčĩ See Language page
ear oreja orelha body nabi inheritance See Language page
earth/soil tierra terra environment ɨwɨ inheritance See Language page
egg huevo ovo fauna piaʔa inheritance See Language page
eye ojo olho body čãʔã inheritance See Language page
far lejos longe quality buǰayã unknown See Language page
fat/grease grasa gordura body ipa unknown See Language page
father padre, papá pai kinship apã doubtful loan Portuguese See Language page
feather pluma pena fauna pepo inheritance See Language page
fire fuego fogo environment tata inheritance See Language page
flower flor flor environment putɨ inheritance See Language page
fog niebla, neblina nevoeira, bruma, neblina environment tãčĩ See Language page
fruit fruta fruta flora yaʔa inheritance See Language page
good bueno bom quality gatu inheritance See Language page
hair (of head) cabello cabelo body aʔa; tõ aʔa inheritance See Language page
hand mano mão body ipo inheritance See Language page
3sg el/ella ele/ela grammar go unknown See Language page
head cabeza cabeça body tõʔõ unknown See Language page
heavy pesado pesado quality puɨʔɨ inheritance See Language page
how? como como grammar bue rõ inheritance See Language page
1sg yo eu grammar čo inheritance For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms See Language page
if si se grammar #NAME? See Language page
in/inside dentro, adentro dentro location kua inheritance See Language page
intestines intestinos intestinos body yeʔe inheritance See Language page
lake lago lago environment ɨʔɨ krou unknown See Language page
leaf hoja folha environment wɨra oʔo inheritance See Language page
left/left hand izquierdo esquerdo location/body ǰačotɨ inheritance See Language page
leg/foot pierna perna body kmakã unique See Language page
lightning rayo, relámpago relampago environment wera inheritance See Language page
liver hígado figado body pɨaʔa inheritance See Language page
long largo comprido, longo quality puku inheritance See Language page
louse piollo, piojo piolho fauna kɨ inheritance order Phtiraptera See Language page
man/male hombre homem human kbaeʔe inheritance See Language page
meat/flesh carne carne fauna oʔo inheritance See Language page
moon luna lua environment ǰačɨ inheritance See Language page
mother madre, mamá mãe kinship ẽgi unique See Language page
mouth boca boca body ǰuru inheritance See Language page
name nombre nome human bɨkuapɨre unique See Language page
near/close cerca de perto quality rɨpɨ-yã unique See Language page
nape base del cuello, nuca nuca body See Language page
neck cuello pescoço body rupɨ inheritance See Language page
new nuevo novo quality kreware unique See Language page
night noche noite time čãwã unique See Language page
no/not no não grammar missing See Language page
nose nariz nariz body pɨta unique See Language page
old viejo velho quality čueʔe unique See Language page
one uno um number etakrã unique See Language page
other otro outro grammar missing See Language page
pain/painful/sick dolor, doloroso, enfermo dor, doloroso, doente body ačɨ inheritance See Language page
person/human being persona pessoa human ače inheritance See Language page
rain lluvia chuva environment bakɨ unique See Language page
red rojo vermelho colour pirã inheritance See Language page
right/right hand derecha direita location/body yutɨ unique See Language page
road/path camino caminho manufacture ape inheritance See Language page
root raíz raiz flora apo inheritance See Language page
rotten podrido podre quality mɨda unique See Language page
sand arena areia environment ɨwɨ-kui inheritance See Language page
sharp afilado, filudo, filoso afiado quality ĩbe inheritance See Language page
short corto curto quality kɨtã unknown See Language page
shoulder hombro ombro body ǰači inheritance See Language page
shy/ashamed tímido, vergonzoso timido, com vergonha mental krɨ̃ba-yã unique See Language page
skin piel pele body pire inheritance See Language page
sky cielo céu environment kreɨʔɨ unique See Language page
small pequeño pequeno quality pɨkae unknown See Language page
smoke humo fumaça environment čĩbo unique See Language page
star estrella estrela environment tata ɨwatɨ inheritance See Language page
stick/wood palo pau, vara flora wɨra inheritance See Language page
stone piedra pedra environment ita inheritance See Language page
tail cola, rabo rabo body buaʔa unique See Language page
that ese/esa esse grammar missing See Language page
3pl ellos/ellas eles/elas grammar go unknown See Language page
thick grueso, gordo, espeso grosso quality kɨra unique See Language page
thin delgado fino quality mini unique See Language page
this este/esta este grammar missing See Language page
2sg xx xx grammar ǰe unknown See Language page
throat garganta garganta body kuẽta unknown See Language page
three tres tres number buǰa unique See Language page
thunder truenos trovão environment čono unique See Language page
bite morder morder body čuʔu inheritance See Language page
blow soplar soprar body peǰu inheritance See Language page
breathe respirar respirar body guaʔa unique See Language page
burn quemar queimar environment ẽdɨ inheritance See Language page
chew masticar, mascar mastigar body pono unique See Language page
climb subir subir motion ǰopi inheritance See Language page
come venir vir motion eǰo inheritance See Language page
cook cocinar cozinhar impact baku unique See Language page
count contar contar mental kuaaʔa unique See Language page
cry llorar chorar mental čĩga unique See Language page
cut/hack cortar cortar impact piãʔã unique See Language page
die/be dead morir morrer state mano inheritance See Language page
dig cavar cavar impact wɨko inheritance See Language page
dream soñar sonhar mental ikẽ pou inheritance See Language page
drink beber, tomar beber body tɨku unique See Language page
eat comer comer body uʔu inheritance See Language page
fall caer cair motion waʔa unknown See Language page
fear miedo medo mental krɨ̃ba-yã unique See Language page
flow fluir fluir motion kana unique See Language page
fly volar voar motion wewe inheritance See Language page
grow crecer crescer state ɨma unique See Language page
hear oír ouvir mental wẽdu inheritance See Language page
hide esconder esconder motion ǰemi inheritance See Language page
hit golpear, pegar bater impact pačo unique See Language page
hold correr, asegurar, sostener segurar other pɨčɨ inheritance See Language page
kill matar matar impact ǰukama ǰono inheritance See Language page
know/be knowledgeable saber, conecer saber, conhecer mental kuaaʔa inheritance See Language page
laugh reír rir mental ǰuǰa unique See Language page
lie down acostarse, echarse deitar motion pača unique See Language page
live/be alive vivir viver, morar body ekõ inheritance See Language page
open/uncover abrir abrir other ǰeɨwɨ unique See Language page
pound/beat machacar, golpear bater impact ǰočo See Language page
say decir dizer mental naʔã inheritance See Language page
scratch rascar rasgar impact missing See Language page
see ver ver mental mečã unknown See Language page
shoot tirar, disparar, balear atirar impact ǰɨwõ unknown See Language page
sit sentar(se) sentar state wapɨ inheritance See Language page
sleep dormir dormir body ikẽ inheritance See Language page
sniff/smell olfatear, oler cheirar body weno unique primarily transitive See Language page
spit escupir cuspir body dɨwõ inheritance See Language page
split partir, dividir rachar, dividir, partir impact mubu unknown See Language page
squeeze estrujar, exprimir espremer impact ǰami inheritance See Language page
stab/pierce apuñalar, acuchillar apunhalar impact broʔo unknown See Language page
stand estar de pié ficar em pé state kuãʔã inheritance See Language page
steal robar roubar other miãrõ inheritance See Language page
suck chupar chupar body pɨče inheritance See Language page
swell hincharse inchar body duru inheritance See Language page
swim nadar nadar motion wewo unique See Language page
think pensar pensar mental mirõrã unknown See Language page
throw tirar, lanzar atirar, jogar impact ǰapi modo inheritance See Language page
tie up/fasten atar, amarrar amarrar impact mučã inheritance See Language page
turn girar, volter, torcer virar other ǰere inheritance may be transitive or intransitive See Language page
vomit vomitar vomitar body buẽʔẽ inheritance See Language page
walk caminar, andar andar motion wata inheritance See Language page
work trabajar trabalhar other [bapu] doubtful loan said to be loan from Guarani See Language page
yawn bostezar bocejar body ãǰa unique See Language page
tongue lengua lingua body kbere unknown See Language page
tooth diente dente body ãʔã inheritance See Language page
two dos dois number mirõ unknown See Language page
water agua agua environment ɨʔɨ inheritance See Language page
1pl.incl nosotros (inclusivo) nós (inclusivo) grammar naǰe inheritance no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted See Language page
1pl.excl nosotros (exclusivo) nós (exclusivo) grammar ore inheritance See Language page
wet mojado molhado quality pirɨ unique See Language page
what? que, qué que grammar bue rõ unknown See Language page
when? cuando quando grammar matɨ rõ inheritance See Language page
where? donde onde grammar mapekrã inheritance See Language page
white blanco branco colour iǰu inheritance See Language page
who? quien, quién quem grammar awa rõ inheritance See Language page
wife esposa esposa kinship breko inheritance See Language page
wind viento vento environment wɨtu inheritance See Language page
wing ala asa body pepo inheritance See Language page
woman/female mujer mulher human kuǰã inheritance See Language page
yellow amarillo amarelo colour iǰu inheritance See Language page
2pl ustedes vocês grammar pẽ-ǰe inheritance See Language page
foot pie pé body pɨčã inheritance See Language page
again de nuevo, otra vez de novo grammar emi inheritance See Language page
all todo todos other wɨwɨ unique See Language page
ankle tobillo tornozelo body pɨčã kmana inheritance See Language page
armpit axila, sobaco axila body pɨwɨ inheritance See Language page
faeces heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol fezes body puči inheritance See Language page
lung pulmón pulmão body juewo unique See Language page
sweat sudar suor, suar body pia upu unknown See Language page
itch hormiguear, sentir comezón coçar body emo See Language page
bark corteza casca environment duwi unique See Language page
fingernail uña unha body pãkã unique See Language page
heart corazón coração body ǰãʔã inheritance See Language page
sun sol sol time kreɨʔɨ unique See Language page
mountain/hill montaña, colina, loma, cerro morro, serra environment kuãʔã unique See Language page
green verde verde quality prãna unique See Language page
hot caliente quente quality aku inheritance See Language page


Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Linnean Name Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Etymology Notes Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Range of Term Word Structure Word Structure Notes Classifier Classifier Notes Hypernym Source Association with Social Categories Ritual/Mythologically Significant Ritual Notes Food Source Food Notes Medicinal Medicinal Notes How Collected Who Collects How Prepared Psychotropic Psychotropic Notes Traded Trade Notes Distribution Habitat Dangerous Ethnobiology Notes Species Notes General Notes
horse caballo cavalho flora-fauna Equus caballus See Language page
bat murciélago morcego flora-fauna Chiroptera spp. bupi inheritance See Language page
bird pajaro, ave passaro flora-fauna kuɨra inheritance See Language page
curassow mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini) mutum flora-fauna Crax sp., Nothocrax sp. missing See Language page Amazonia
toucan tucán, pinsha (Peru) tucano flora-fauna Ramphastos sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
gray-winged trumpeter Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris jacamim flora-fauna Psophia crepitans missing See Language page Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
guan pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru) jacu flora-fauna Penelope sp. missing See Language page Different types have different localized ranges
tinamou tinamu, perdiz, gallineta inambu, inhambu flora-fauna family Tinamidae missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
hummingbird colibrí, picaflor (Peru) beija-flor flora-fauna family Trochilidae missing See Language page Widespread
kingfisher martín pescador, catalan (Peru) martim-pescador flora-fauna family Alcedinidae missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
owl (large) búho, lechuza corujão flora-fauna order Strigiformes kramona unique See Language page Widespread
macaw ara, guacamaya Arara flora-fauna family Psittacidae; Ara sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
parrot loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib) papagaio flora-fauna Amazona amazonica gẽro See Language page Widespread
dove paloma pomba flora-fauna family Columbidae buaruku doubtful loan - WW %motkuku See Language page
hawk halcón, gavilán gavião flora-fauna family Accipitridae tõrã unique cf. Yagua See Language page
vulture buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru) urubu flora-fauna family Cathartidae briku unique See Language page Widespread South America
duck pato pato, marreco flora-fauna Anatidae family čĩbe unique See Language page
great egret Garza Blanca, Guyratî Garça-Branca-Grande flora-fauna Ardea alba missing See Language page Widespread South America
woodpecker pájaro carpintero, carpintero pica-pau flora-fauna family Picidae missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
dog (camp, domestic) perro cachorro flora-fauna Canis famililaris baegi unique See Language page Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog) sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta cachorro-do-mato flora-fauna Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis See Language page Widespread Amazonia
anteater oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus tamanduá flora-fauna Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater) missing See Language page Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo) tatu flora-fauna family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri missing See Language page Widespread in Amazonia
sloth pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru) macaco preguica flora-fauna Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
alligator, black caiman babilla; cachirre jacaré flora-fauna Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp. missing See Language page Throughout Amazonia Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
electric eel anguila eléctrica poraquê flora-fauna Electrophorus electricus missing See Language page
fish (generic) pez peixe flora-fauna pira inheritance See Language page
pacu fish palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru) pacu flora-fauna Mylossoma sp. missing See Language page
pirana piraña, caribe piranha flora-fauna subfamily Serrasalmidae missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
tigerfish taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru) traíra flora-fauna Hoplias sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
mandi catfish maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish) mandi flora-fauna Auchenipterus sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
speckled catfish surubí, pintadillo surubim, sorubim flora-fauna Pseudoplatystoma sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
toad sapo sapo flora-fauna order Anura missing See Language page
iguana iguana, garipiares (Colombia) camaleão flora-fauna Iguana sp. missing See Language page iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
small lizard lagartija calango flora-fauna order Squamata čeǰu inheritance See Language page
stingray (generic) rayas látigo, raya arraia flora-fauna Potamotrygon sp. unknown See Language page
crab cangrejo caranguejo flora-fauna infraorder Brachyura missing See Language page
anaconda anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande sucuri flora-fauna genus Eunectes missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia
boa boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura jiboia flora-fauna family Boidae, subf. Boinae missing See Language page
snake (generic) culebra, serpiente cobra flora-fauna mebo unknown See Language page
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara jararaca flora-fauna Bothrops jararaca/atrox missing See Language page Widespread South America
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant) tortuga, morrocoy, motelo jabutí, tartaruga flora-fauna Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria krẽbe inheritance See Language page Widespread
Amazon dolphin bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco) boto cor-de-rosa flora-fauna Inia geoffrensis missing See Language page Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls
mushroom champiñón, hongo cogumelo flora-fauna (any edible generic) krãdo unknown See Language page prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
black palm bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá bacaba flora-fauna Oenocarpus bacaba missing See Language page Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
açai palm huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia) açaí flora-fauna Euterpe sp. missing See Language page floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
miriti palm moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti buriti flora-fauna Mauritia flexuosa missing See Language page Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps trunks contain sago-like starch
palm for roof thatch pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná caraná flora-fauna Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana missing See Language page Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests palm
paxiuba palm pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba paxiuba flora-fauna Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol) pupunha flora-fauna Bactris gasipaes missing See Language page
seje palm ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá patoá, patuá flora-fauna Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua missing See Language page mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
coca coca coca flora-fauna Erythroxylum coca missing See Language page secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes plant
cotton algodón algodão flora-fauna Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers) No.ACH moiǰu inheritance See Language page secondary scrub vegetation plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
kapok ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.) sumaumeira flora-fauna Ceiba pentandra missing See Language page northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas tree
hot pepper ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru) pimenta flora-fauna Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens bue ǰoaʔa See Language page secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden plant
peanut maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete amendoim flora-fauna Arachis hypogaea See Language page plant
pineapple piña abacaxi flora-fauna Ananas comosus missing See Language page plant
arrow cane, wildcane caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio flora-fauna Gynerium sagittatum See Language page tropical regions, especially river banks plant
banana, plantain banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano banana flora-fauna Musa sp. bueyaʔa unknown See Language page Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
beans frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas) feijão flora-fauna Phaseolus spp. kbere ã unknown See Language page plant
grass hierba, pasto capim, grama flora-fauna (generic) ǰõra unknown See Language page
maize, corn mazorca, maiz milho flora-fauna Zea mays wače inheritance See Language page widespread, esp. in river floodplains plant
tobacco tabaco tabaco flora-fauna Nicotiana tabacum missing See Language page plant
tree árbol arvore flora-fauna wɨra inheritance See Language page
achiote, anatto achiote urucum flora-fauna Bixa orellana missing See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens shrub
inga guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru) inga flora-fauna Inga spp. missing See Language page Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
avocado palta, aguacate abacate flora-fauna Persea americana missing See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens tree
bitterwood tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru) envira flora-fauna Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala See Language page secondary forests, native to Brazil tree
brazil nut castaña castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis) flora-fauna Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia'] missing See Language page 1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua. tree
cashew anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela) caju flora-fauna Anacardium occidentale / giganteum missing See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
genipap jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico genipapo, jenipapo flora-fauna Genipapa americana missing See Language page widespread lowland SA shrub
japurá oreja de murcielago japurá flora-fauna Erisma japura See Language page large tree
rubber tree (sorva) caucho, siringa, shiringa seringa, borracha flora-fauna Hevea sp. missing See Language page Widespread Amazonia tree
ucuqui yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru) ucuqui flora-fauna Pouteria ucuqui See Language page native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
Amazon tree-grape uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.) cucura flora-fauna Pourouma cecropiifolia missing See Language page grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times a tree; not a true grape
manioc (bitter or generic) yuca brava mandioca flora-fauna Manihot esculenta čipoya doubtful loan cf. Mascoian sipo forms See Language page not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition. Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet) yuca, caribe macaxeira flora-fauna Manihot esculenta missing See Language page Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
potato papa batata flora-fauna Solanum tuberosum See Language page secondary scrub vegetation compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara batata-doce flora-fauna Ipomoea batatas bueyakɨtã inheritance See Language page plant
cará tuber, purple or white camote, sachapapa cará roxo, branco flora-fauna Dioscorea sp. missing See Language page secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings plant
tannia, yautia huitina (Peru), ñame taioba branca flora-fauna Xanthosoma spp. bueyakɨtã See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree) calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara cabaça flora-fauna Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine) mibɨpirã See Language page indigenous gardens plant; tree
squash calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru) abóbora flora-fauna Cucurbita sp. missing See Language page plant
cipó vine tamishi, bejuco, yare cipó flora-fauna Heteropsis spp. čipo See Language page secondary forest, floodplain vine
fish poison, barbasco barbasco, matapez (Colombia) timbó flora-fauna Lonchocarpus spp. missing See Language page secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation shrub/tree
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca ayahuasca, yage ayahuasca, caapi flora-fauna Banisteriopsis caapi missing See Language page semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW vine
hallucinogenic snuff vilca, cebil, yopo paricá, yopo flora-fauna Anadenanthera sp. or virola See Language page
insect (generic) insecto insecto flora-fauna generic See Language page
ant (generic) hormiga formiga flora-fauna Formicidae tabiu See Language page
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro tocandira flora-fauna Paraponera clavata missing See Language page
leaf-cutter ant Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse saúva flora-fauna Atta sp. missing See Language page
honeybee abeja abelha flora-fauna Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis mɨga unique See Language page
cockroach cucaracha barata-do-mato flora-fauna order Blattaria inheritance? - WW %arawe, Mello 2000 *taraBe; cf. Carib (*)masarawa See Language page
firefly, lightning bug lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin) vagalume flora-fauna fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae ãwã unique See Language page
butterfly, moth mariposa borboleta flora-fauna order Lepidoptera pana inheritance See Language page
moth mariposa nocturna, polilla mariposa flora-fauna order Lepidoptera See Language page
angleworm lombriz minhoca flora-fauna order Opisthopora inheritance See Language page
centipede ciempiés centopéia flora-fauna class Chilopoda missing See Language page
scorpion escorpión; alacran escorpião flora-fauna order Scorpiones missing See Language page
cicada cigarra, chicharra cigarra flora-fauna super fam. Cicadoidea missing See Language page
flea pulga pulga flora-fauna order Siphonaptera kɨwo unknown See Language page
blowfly/housefly mosca mosca flora-fauna Diptera beru inheritance See Language page
cricket saltón, grillo grilo flora-fauna family Gryllidae missing See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil) suri, mojojoy larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá flora-fauna Rhynchophorus sp. missing See Language page
praying mantis, stick insects mantis religiosa louva-a-deus flora-fauna order Mantodea, family Mantidae See Language page
mosquito mosquito, zancudo mosquito, carapana flora-fauna Anopheles sp. čĩko unique See Language page
termites, white-ants comején (Peru), termitas cupim flora-fauna order Isoptera missing See Language page
tick garrapata carrapato flora-fauna superfam Ixodoidea missing See Language page
wasp avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa caba flora-fauna order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita kuẽʔẽ unknown See Language page
snail caracol, churo (Peru) caracol flora-fauna class Gastropoda tɨta inheritance See Language page
spider araña aranha flora-fauna Arachnidae, Araneae nadu inheritance See Language page
jaguar yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru) onca flora-fauna Panthera onca missing cf. Arawak, Tukanoan See Language page
manatee vaca marina, manatí peixe-boi flora-fauna Trichechus sp. See Language page
brown woolly monkey Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt macaco barrigudo flora-fauna Lagothrix lagothricha missing See Language page
howler monkey (red-handed) mono aullador, mono coto (Peru) guariba flora-fauna Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.] missing See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero macaco prego flora-fauna Cebus apella missing See Language page
white-fronted capuchin Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru) Caiarara flora-fauna Cebus albifrons missing See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia) macaco aranha, coatá, quatá flora-fauna Ateles belzebuth/paniscus missing See Language page
opossum zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo mucura flora-fauna family Didelphidae kune inheritance See Language page
giant otter Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria ariranha flora-fauna Pteronura brasiliensis missing See Language page
neotropical otter (small) Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia) lontra flora-fauna Lontra longicaudis missing See Language page
collared peccary sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar caititu, caetitu flora-fauna Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu čačupurã čueʔe unique See Language page
white-lipped peccary Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana queixada flora-fauna Tayassu pecari missing See Language page
porcupine puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru) cuandu, porco-espinho flora-fauna family Erethizontidae missing See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache quati flora-fauna genus Nasua karẽ, tʃɨvapetĩ, kɨruvagi unknown See Language page
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti) Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado cutia flora-fauna Dasyprocta spp. missing See Language page
capybara Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco capivara flora-fauna Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris paiva (Mello2000) unknown See Language page
green acouchi Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo cutiara flora-fauna Myoprocta pratti missing See Language page
paca (lowland) Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana) paca flora-fauna Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.) missing See Language page
mouse, rat ratón camundongo, rata flora-fauna Mus musculus buǰa inheritance See Language page
squirrel ardilla, danta (Ven) serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo flora-fauna family Sciuridae missing See Language page
tapir sachavaca, danta anta flora-fauna Tapirus terrestris missing See Language page
deer venado veado, cariacu flora-fauna family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus waču inheritance See Language page


Cultural Vocabulary (97)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes Word Structure Word Structure Notes General Notes Source
basket (general) canasta, canasto, cesta cesto culture-material nakõ; nokõ doubtful loan into protolg, direction unknown - WW %panaku See Language page
basket, small canasta, canasto, cesta cesto pequeno, tampado culture-material See Language page
bead abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar miçanga culture-material unknown See Language page
bed cama cama culture-material ikẽ ẽda-tɨ unique See Language page
hammock hamaca, chinchorro rede culture-material missing See Language page
bench, seat banco, silla, asiento banco culture-material wapɨ ẽda-tɨgi unique See Language page
canoe canoa canoa transport wɨra kara inheritance See Language page
drum (large signal) tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia) tambor culture missing Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances See Language page
drum tambor tambor culture-mythology missing See Language page
shaman, healer chamán, brujo xaman, pajé, feiticeiro culture-mythology missing In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv See Language page
healer curandero benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano) culture-mythology Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well. See Language page
broom escoba vassoura culture-material paitɨgi inheritance See Language page
clothing ropa roupa culture-mythology tɨru inheritance See Language page
fence, palisade cerco cerca other bue pečeatɨgi unique may be related to defense/warfare? See Language page
firewood leña lenha other čãkã unknown See Language page
Curupira (spirit type) Curupira, Madremonte Curupira culture-mythology malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio espirito culture-mythology ãǰãwe unknown See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure dios(es), deidad divinidade, figura mítica culture-mythology Apã waču unique In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc. See Language page
flute flauta, quena (Peru) flauta culture-mythology mibɨ inheritance multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc. See Language page
panpipe carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora caniço, flauta de pã culture-mythology See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making canoa para chicha cocho de caxiri narcotics See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya) kapiwaya capiwaya culture-mythology See Language page
knife cuchillo faca culture-material kɨči inheritance See Language page
machete machete facão culture-material missing See Language page
axe/stone axe hacha (de piedra) machado (de pedra) subsistence tool ǰɨʔɨ inheritance especially for clearing fields See Language page
arrow flecha flecha subsistence tool mačĩ doubtful loan Aymara mičˀi hunting, warfare See Language page
spear lanza lança subsistence tool pɨpẽ unknown See Language page
bow arco arco subsistence tool rapa inheritance arco See Language page
paddle/oar remo remo transport unique See Language page
plate plato prato culture-material krõbe ǰape inheritance See Language page
pot olla, pote panela, vasilha subsistence tool kara unique See Language page
basin/bowl tazón, plato hondo, taza tijela culture-material biru unknown See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru) forno para beiju subsistence tool missing agriculture? See Language page
rattle matraca, maraca marico, chocalho culture-mythology tɨka unknown See Language page
resin resina, brea, copal resina, brea, breu subsistence tool missing See Language page
wax cera cera other gãčĩ unknown See Language page
honey miel mel food mɨga unknown only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia? See Language page
stone for lighting fires piedra para hacer fuego pedra para acender fogo culture-material See Language page
rope/string mecate, cuerda, soga corda culture pawa unknown See Language page
tattoo tatuaje, tatu tatuagem culture-mythology See Language page
thatch/roof crisneja palha, caraná culture-material missing See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women) yurupari jurupari culture-mythology a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women. See Language page
fetish, charm fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga feitiço, puçanga culture-mythology See Language page
feather headdress plumaje, corona de plumas enfeite/capacete de penas culture-mythology See Language page
paint body, body paint pintura corporal pintura corporal culture-mythology See Language page
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven tierra do los muertos terra dos mortos culture-mythology Apã waču čupape See Language page
school escuela escola acculturation See Language page
bottle botella garrafa acculturation See Language page
paper papel papel acculturation [kuačia] unknown source says loan from Guarani; could be cognate? See Language page
dream sueño, soñar sonho, sonhar culture-mythology ikẽ pou See Language page
chicken gallina galinha acculturation uru-purã unique from 'quail' See Language page
grave tumba, sepultura, sepulcro sepultura, sepulcro, cova culture-mythology peče-pɨre ẽdatɨ See Language page
pipe for tobacco pipa cachimbo other See Language page
sugarcane/sugar azúcar, caña de azúcar açucar (de cana) acculturation takua ẽʔẽ See Language page
skirt falda, saya, fustan, pollera saia culture-material kuǰã tɨru unknown See Language page
shoes zapatos sapatos dress pɨčã-bire See Language page
policeman polícia policía acculturation See Language page
soldier soldado soldado acculturation tõ ayãgi unknown See Language page
cat gato gato acculturation kɨčirõ loan English See Language page
gun arma, escopeta espingarda, fusil acculturation proro unknown See Language page
hat sombero chapéu dress ãwã semantic shift from 'headband' See Language page
chief/leader jefe, cacique chefe culture-mythology ɨma čiǰa unknown See Language page
club garrote, cachiporra clava, porrete subsistence tool See Language page
loincloth taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla tanga, tapa-sexo dress See Language page
fireplace hogar lareira other See Language page
fishing line cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze linha de pesca subsistence tool See Language page
salt sal sal food itakɨrɨ iro unknown See Language page
song (generic) canción, canto canção culture-mythology preʔe inheritance See Language page
blowgun cerbatana, pucuna (Peru) zarabatana subsistence tool missing currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region See Language page
dart (blowgun) dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru) dardo, seta subsistence tool hunting and warfare See Language page
fan abanico abanador, abano subsistence tool pekua inheritance esp. for fanning a cooking fire See Language page
fish (with line) anzuelear, pescar con linea pescar (com linha) food missing See Language page
fish (with fish-poison) pescar con barbasco, barbasquear pescar com timbó; tinguijar food missing See Language page
hunt cazar caçar food baereka See Language page
game animal caza, animal de caza caça, animal de caça food missing Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl) cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo cuia subsistence tool mibɨpirã unknown See Language page
grater rallador, rallo ralador, ralo subsistence tool missing esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf) barbacoa jirau subsistence tool missing See Language page
mortar mortero pilão subsistence tool unknown See Language page
pestle pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor mão de pilão subsistence tool See Language page
fermented drink masato, chicha caxiri, chicha culture ɨ tata unknown prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made See Language page
flour/meal from manioc fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina farinha food inheritance agriculture See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe beiju food missing usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits See Language page
starch (tapioca, other) almidón goma de tapioca food missing See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau cahuana, caguana mingau food missing agriculture See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer) tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca tipiti food missing word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc See Language page
tripod for washing manioc trípode tripé subsistence tool agriculture See Language page
venom for darts, poison veneno curare subsistence tool missing hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?) See Language page
woven strainer/sieve colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru) peneira, cumatá subsistence tool missing agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour See Language page
bait for fishing cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru) isca subsistence tool can refer to worms; more generic See Language page
fishtrap trampa de peces, trampa matapi, cacuri subsistence tool See Language page
bottom grinding stone manufacture if different word from top grinding stone See Language page
digging stick subsistence tool See Language page
top grinding stone metate, mano; piedra de moler metate, mano manufacture use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic) subsistence tool See Language page
spearthrower subsistence tool See Language page
house other tapɨ semantic shift temporary shelter See Language page


Grammatical Data (226)
Category Grammatical Feature Grammatical Feature: Notes Feature Status Grammatical Notes Source Etymology Notes General Notes Phylogenetic Code
Phonology - Segmental Pre-/post-nasalized stops Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive. yes pre-nasalization triggered by nasal vowels Rossler 2008:32-33
Phonology - Segmental Glottalized/ejective consonants Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative] no Rossler 2008:39, 57
Phonology - Segmental Palatalized stops Phonemic contrast no Rossler 2008:39, 57
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic vowel length Does the language have long and short vowels? no Rossler 2008:32
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels no Rossler 2008:31
Phonology - Segmental Complex onsets Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme yes Rossler 2008:58
Phonology - Segmental No codas *(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained] no no codas are allowed Rossler 2008:59
Phonology - Segmental Word-final coda required Do all syllables end in a consonant? no Rossler 2008:59
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive tones Note how many contrastive tones no info more likely not
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive stress Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference? no stress is assigned to the las syllable of the word Rossler 2008:62
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments no Rossler 2008:30-67
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to? yes But there are few instances of it Rossler 2008:30-67
Phonology - Suprasegmental Vowel harmony no info more likely not
Morphology - General Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb) Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number] no info
Morphology - General Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes Stem change, tone no info
Morphology - General Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes) Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word no info
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing There are many more prefixes than suffixes no There are no prefixes in the language Rossler 2008:69
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing There are many more suffixes than prefixes yes But this language has few morphology. The author says that this is a a sort of isolating language. Rossler 2008:68
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different no Rossler 2008:68-69
Morphology - General Reduplication: full The full morpheme is reduplicated yes There is at least full reduplication of a morpheme to show intensity or dinamism. Susnik 1974:54
Morphology - General Reduplication: partial Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive NN compounding Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV serialization (without compounding) Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV compounding Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap' no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Auxiliary verb(s) There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs no info
Morphology - Incorporation Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process Verb contains nominal segment no info
Morphology - Incorporation Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns no info
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classes/genders Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP no info
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Number of noun classes/genders Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders no info
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders) Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain. no info
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates Masculine, feminine, neuter no info
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates no info
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system Animate/inanimate, human/non-human no info
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only no info
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates no info
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates no info
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification "Repeater" classifiers Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot" no info
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals) Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals no info
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.' no info
Nominal Categories - Number Singular number may be marked on the noun Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups no info
Nominal Categories - Number Plural affix on noun no info
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun no info
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by reduplication of noun no info
Nominal Categories - Number Plural word/clitic no info
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked on human or animate nouns only no info
Nominal Categories - Number Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns no info
Nominal Categories - Number Unique associative plural marker e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them' no info
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Definite or specific articles Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only no info
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness no info
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Indefinite or non-specific article or marker no info
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you yes Rossler 2008:71
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound) no Rossler 2008:73-74
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number) Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system no info
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.) no info
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3sg pronouns no info
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3pl pronouns no info
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns no Susnik 1974:98
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Formal/informal distinction in pronouns Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns no info
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Reflexive pronouns e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix no info
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Adpositions mark core NPs Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients no info
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: number of cases Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun no info
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are no info
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: symmetrical All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity) no info
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: asymmetrical Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates no info
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: suffix or postpositional clitic no info
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: prefix or prepositional clitic no info
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: infix or inpositional clitic no info
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: stem change no info
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: tone no info
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: comitative = instrumental Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument' no info
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-2 At least some part of the system involves base-2 no info
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-5 At least some part of the system involves base-5 no info
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-10 At least some part of the system involves base-10 no info
Nominal Categories - Numerals Other base (specify) 4, 20, etc. no info
Nominal Categories - Numerals Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5 e.g. two = 'eye-quantity' no info
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 5 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no info
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 10 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no info
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival no info
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Person inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N alienable/inalienable? no Possessison is marked by yuxtapostion of the nouns Susnik 1974:101
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N alienable/inalienable? no Susnik 1974:101
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent e.g. 'the boy-'s dog' no Susnik 1974:101
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head e.g. 'the boy his-dog' no Susnik 1974:101
Nominal Syntax - Possession Possessive classifiers There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of inalienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of alienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of kin terms 'my-father' but *father no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal) 'my-leg' but *leg no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man) no info
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Underived adjectives There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes yes Rossler 2008:106-123
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco no info
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival) There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb no info
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer) There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb no info
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song) There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb no info
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive verbalizing morphology There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective no info
Nominal Syntax - Other NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently 'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary' no info
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated past marker(s) Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere yes There are two past markers: /-re/ and /-we/ Rossler 2008:89
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. distant vs. recent past yes Rossler 2008:89
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. imminent vs. distant future no info
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated future or non-past marker(s) yes Rossler 2008:89
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: prefix no Rossler 2008:89
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: suffix yes Rossler 2008:89
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut no Rossler 2008:89
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect suppletion no Rossler 2008:89
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood yes Susnik 1974:49
Verbal Categories - Mood Polite imperative morpheme There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language) no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative) as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing' no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: affix on verb Inflectional marking of capacity to do something no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: verbal construction no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: other marking no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: affix on verb Modal expressing hypothesis no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: verbal construction no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: other marking no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Marking of expected/unexpected action or result There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal frustrative Modal expressing frustration ("in vain") yes It seeems to be a verbal suffix Susnik 1974:79
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal habitual Modal expressing habituality no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Apprehensive construction There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens' no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Reality status marking on verbs There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events' no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Affect markers (positive/negative) Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative no info
Verbal Categories - Directionals Directional elements affixed to the verb There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc. no info
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized visual Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker no info
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized nonvisual Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt) no info
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized inferential Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker. no info
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized reportive Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly' no info
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized quotative Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse no info
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Other evidential Any other evidential values not represented above no info
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic no info
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: part of tense system Includes portmanteau morphs no info
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: separate particle no info
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: modal morpheme no info
Verbal Categories - Verbal number Verbal number suppletion no info
Verbal Categories - Other Social interaction markers Note the type of interaction no info
Word Order No fixed basic constituent order no info
Word Order VS in intransitive clauses Verb precedes subject no info
Word Order VS in transitive clauses no info
Word Order VO in transitive clauses Verb precedes object no Susnilk 1974:102
Word Order OS in transitive clauses Object precedes subject no info
Word Order Preposition-Noun no info
Word Order Noun-Postposition or case suffix no info
Word Order Gen-Noun Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book) no info
Word Order Noun-Gen Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John') no info
Word Order Adj-Noun Adjective precedes the noun no info
Word Order Noun-Adj Adjective follows the noun no info
Word Order Dem-Noun no info
Word Order Noun-Dem no info
Word Order Num-Noun no info
Word Order Noun-Num no info
Word Order Noun-Rel Relative clause follows noun that it modifies no info
Word Order Rel-Noun Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies no info
Word Order Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative) e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away') no info
Word Order Relative clause is correlative or adjoined e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat' no info
Word Order Question word is clause initial 'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause no info
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects no info
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked no info
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker no info
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers no info
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep) no info
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative no info
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative no info
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no info
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite no info
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive no info
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs no There are not verbal person markers Rossler 2008:73
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3) no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: split More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc. no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects yes Rossler 2008:74
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option) no Rossler 2008:73-74
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option) no Rossler 2008:73-74
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. no info
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects no info
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking on intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes no Rossler 2008:73-74
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers no Rossler 2008:73-74
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take object (P) markers no info
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects 3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system no info
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects 3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system no info
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Number can be marked separately from person on the verb Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately no info
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes no However, the possessive pronouns are the same as the personal pronouns Rossler 2008:75-6
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Gender distinguished in verbal person markers For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: indirect object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: double object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: secondary object In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal. no but there is a particle /pitʃa/ which marks reciprocality Rossler 2008:77
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reflexive: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive. no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Passive Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted yes Rossler 2008:89
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Antipassive Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Other intransitivizing morphology There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: benefactive Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: other Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: prefix Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb yes Susnik 1974:38-39
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: suffix Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: serial verb or analytical construction Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy' Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.' yes It is a verbal prefix Susnik 1974:38-39
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated sociative Indicates that causer participates in event no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence) There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency no info
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a preposed element Clausal negator is a preposed element no info
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a postposed element Clausal negator is a postposed element yes
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: affix Negatives: affix yes It is a verbal suffix Rossler 2008:89
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: particle Negatives: particle no info
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: auxiliary verb Negatives: auxiliary verb no info
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: double Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas' no info
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist' no info
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative expression 'I don't know' Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase no info
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: interrogative particle Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle no info
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: verb morphology Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology no info
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: word order Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) no info
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: intonation only Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only no info
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Content questions: word order differs from declaratives Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.) no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: verbal Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: nominal Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all) no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head) no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses. no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Relativizer is a verbal affix no info
Simple Clauses - Predication Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes) no info
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions Grammaticalized verbal desiderative Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it) no info
Simple Clauses - Other Clause chaining Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause. no info
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked switch-reference system There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined no info
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence no info