Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors

Paraguayan Guaraní

Family
Tupian
Region
South America
ISO 639-3
gug
Location
-25.61°, -57.09°
Notes
Features
Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Data Sources
Ayala, José Valentín. 1993. Gramática guaraní. Asunción: Centro Cultural “Leopoldo Marechal” de la Embajada de Argentina. Dávalos de Céspedes, Celsa & Natalia Krivoshein de Canese. 2007. Paraguayan Guaraní. Intercontinental Dictionary Series, ed. Mary Ritchie Key. http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/ids/ Krivoshein de Canese, Natalia and Acosta Alcaraz, Feliciano. 2001. Gramática Guarani. Asunción: CEPAG. Zarratea, Tadeo. 2002. Gramática elemental de la lengua guaraní. Marben, Asunción.


Basic Vocabulary (191)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes General Notes Source
above encima, arriba acima location ɨvate; 'ari See Language page
and y e grammar See Language page
ash ceniza(s) cinzas environment taniᵐbu Cf. 'dust' 01.213. See Language page
at en, a em, a location See Language page
back espalda costas body ape; atukupe See Language page
bad mal mal quality ɲaɲa; aɲa See Language page
belly barriga barriga body kuʔa; pɨʔa See Language page
below abajo, debajo abaixo location ɨ'vɨ-pe; 'ɣʷɨ-pe ɨvɨ is 'ground, earth' 01.212. See Language page
big grande grande quality tuiča; ɣʷasu See Language page
black negro preto colour hũ See Language page
blood sangre sangue body t-uɣʷɨ See Language page
boil/pimple espinilla, granos espinha, borbulha body ǰatiʔi See Language page
bone hueso osso body kãᵑɣʷe See Language page
breast pecho, seno peito body 'kama See Language page
child niño, niña criança human mitã See Language page
cloud nube nuvem environment arai See Language page
cold frío frio quality r-oʔɨ; h-o'ʔɨsã See Language page
correct/true verdad, de veras verdade quality oĩporã; h-eko-katu; h-eko-porã See Language page
day día dia time 'ara Also means 'weather' 01.780. See Language page
dirty sucio sujo quality kɨʔa See Language page
dingo/wolf fauna See Language page
dry seco seco quality kã See Language page
dull/blunt sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo maçante, desamolado, não afiado quality hakuaʔɨ̃va; haiŋa See Language page
dust polvo poeira environment ɨvɨ-tiᵐbo Cf. 'ashes' 01.840. See Language page
ear oreja orelha body naᵐbi See Language page
earth/soil tierra terra environment ɨvɨ See Language page
egg huevo ovo fauna t-upiʔa; rɨɣʷasu-rupiʔa See Language page
eye ojo olho body t-esa See Language page
far lejos longe quality moᵐbɨrɨ See Language page
fat/grease grasa gordura body ɲaⁿdɨ; kɨra-kue See Language page
father padre, papá pai kinship 'tuva See Language page
feather pluma pena fauna t-aɣʷe See Language page
fire fuego fogo environment t-ata See Language page
flower flor flor environment ɨvotɨ See Language page
fog niebla, neblina nevoeira, bruma, neblina environment t-ata-tina; araipɨtu Cf. proto form in 'smoke' 01.830. See Language page
fruit fruta fruta flora a; ɨva See Language page
good bueno bom quality maraᵑgatu; porã; pɨʔa-porã See Language page
hair (of head) cabello cabelo body t-aɣʷe See Language page
hand mano mão body po See Language page
3sg el/ella ele/ela grammar haʔe See Language page
head cabeza cabeça body akã See Language page
heavy pesado pesado quality po'hɨi See Language page
how? como como grammar ᵐba'ʔeiča See Language page
1sg yo eu grammar če For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms See Language page
if si se grammar rõ; ramo See Language page
in/inside dentro, adentro dentro location pɨpe; kotɨ'pɨpe See Language page
intestines intestinos intestinos body t-ɨekue; t-ɨe See Language page
lake lago lago environment ɨreⁿda; ɨpa See Language page
leaf hoja folha environment toɣʷe See Language page
left/left hand izquierdo esquerdo location/body asu See Language page
leg/foot pierna perna body t-etɨma See Language page
lightning rayo, relámpago relampago environment aratiri See Language page
liver hígado figado body ᵐbɨʔa See Language page
long largo comprido, longo quality puku See Language page
louse piollo, piojo piolho fauna kɨ order Phtiraptera See Language page
man/male hombre homem human ava; kuiᵐbaʔe See Language page
meat/flesh carne carne fauna soʔo See Language page
moon luna lua environment ǰasɨ See Language page
mother madre, mamá mãe kinship sɨ See Language page
mouth boca boca body ǰuru See Language page
name nombre nome human 't-era See Language page
near/close cerca de perto quality aɣʷĩ See Language page
nape base del cuello, nuca nuca body a'tua See Language page
neck cuello pescoço body a'ǰura See Language page
new nuevo novo quality pɨahu See Language page
night noche noite time pɨhare See Language page
no/not no não grammar See Language page
nose nariz nariz body tĩ; apɨᵑgʷa See Language page
old viejo velho quality tuǰa See Language page
one uno um number peteĩ See Language page
other otro outro grammar See Language page
pain/painful/sick dolor, doloroso, enfermo dor, doloroso, doente body ha'sɨva; t-asɨ See Language page
person/human being persona pessoa human ava; 'mava; tekove See Language page
rain lluvia chuva environment ama See Language page
red rojo vermelho colour pɨtã See Language page
right/right hand derecha direita location/body aka'tua See Language page
road/path camino caminho manufacture tape; t-ape-poʔi See Language page
root raíz raiz flora h-apo; t-apo See Language page
rotten podrido podre quality ituǰu; tuǰu See Language page
sand arena areia environment ɨvɨ-kuʔi Lit. 'earth-crumbled (or reduced to small pieces)'. See Language page
sharp afilado, filudo, filoso afiado quality haiᵐbe See Language page
short corto curto quality ᵐbɨkɨ See Language page
shoulder hombro ombro body atiʔɨ See Language page
shy/ashamed tímido, vergonzoso timido, com vergonha mental otĩva reko; ɲe-mo-tĩ See Language page
skin piel pele body pire Cf. 'bark' 08.750; 'flay' 09.290. See Language page
sky cielo céu environment ɨ'vaɣa See Language page
small pequeño pequeno quality mičĩ See Language page
smoke humo fumaça environment t-ata'tĩ; tiᵐbo See Language page
star estrella estrela environment ᵐbɨǰa See Language page
stick/wood palo pau, vara flora ɨvɨra See Language page
stone piedra pedra environment ita See Language page
tail cola, rabo rabo body t-uɣʷai See Language page
that ese/esa esse grammar See Language page
3pl ellos/ellas eles/elas grammar haʔe-'kuera See Language page
thick grueso, gordo, espeso grosso quality poɣʷasu; anaᵐbusu See Language page
thin delgado fino quality poʔi; pererĩ See Language page
this este/esta este grammar See Language page
2sg xx xx grammar ⁿde See Language page
throat garganta garganta body ahɨʔo See Language page
three tres tres number ᵐbohapɨ See Language page
thunder truenos trovão environment sunu See Language page
bite morder morder body suʔu See Language page
blow soplar soprar body peǰu See Language page
breathe respirar respirar body pɨtu; pɨtu-hẽ See Language page
burn quemar queimar environment h-eⁿdɨ A light burning is t-eⁿdɨ. See Language page
chew masticar, mascar mastigar body ɲamiⁿduʔu; suʔu See Language page
climb subir subir motion ǰu-pi; [ɲekarama] See Language page
come venir vir motion ǰu See Language page
cook cocinar cozinhar impact ᵐboǰɨ See Language page
count contar contar mental papa See Language page
cry llorar chorar mental ǰaheʔo; h-asẽ See Language page
cut/hack cortar cortar impact kɨtĩ See Language page
die/be dead morir morrer state mano See Language page
dig cavar cavar impact ǰoʔo; ᵐboʔ-ɨvɨ-kua ɨvɨ is 'earth, soil' 01.212. See Language page
dream soñar sonhar mental 'kerasɨ; ke See Language page
drink beber, tomar beber body u; ɨ-ʔu Respectively: transitive, irregular; intrans., irregular. See Language page
eat comer comer body u; karu First form is transitive, irregular verb. See Language page
fall caer cair motion a See Language page
fear miedo medo mental kɨhɨǰe; pɨʔa-mirĩ See Language page
flow fluir fluir motion sɨrɨ See 'river' 01.360. See Language page
fly volar voar motion veve See Language page
grow crecer crescer state kakuaa See Language page
hear oír ouvir mental h-eⁿdu See Language page
hide esconder esconder motion ɲomi; mo-kaɲɨ; ɲemi See Language page
hit golpear, pegar bater impact ᵐbota See Language page
hold correr, asegurar, sostener segurar other pɨhɨ See Language page
kill matar matar impact ǰuka See Language page
know/be knowledgeable saber, conecer saber, conhecer mental kuaa See Language page
laugh reír rir mental puka See Language page
lie down acostarse, echarse deitar motion ɲeno See Language page
live/be alive vivir viver, morar body (ai)kove; (ai)ko; t-ekove Respectively: intransitive verb; intrans.; noun form. See Language page
open/uncover abrir abrir other peʔa See Language page
pound/beat machacar, golpear bater impact ǰoso See Language page
say decir dizer mental e; i; ǰe See Language page
scratch rascar rasgar impact See Language page
see ver ver mental h-eča See Language page
shoot tirar, disparar, balear atirar impact haʔã; ǰapi; ᵐbokapu See Language page
sit sentar(se) sentar state ɣʷapɨ See Language page
sleep dormir dormir body ke See Language page
sniff/smell olfatear, oler cheirar body aⁿdu; h-etũ primarily transitive See Language page
spit escupir cuspir body ⁿdivu See Language page
split partir, dividir rachar, dividir, partir impact ǰoka; ᵐbo-vo See Language page
squeeze estrujar, exprimir espremer impact ǰopɨ See Language page
stab/pierce apuñalar, acuchillar apunhalar impact kutu See Language page
stand estar de pié ficar em pé state moɲeᵐboʔɨ; puʔã; ɲeᵐboʔɨ See Language page
steal robar roubar other moⁿda; ǰavɨkɨ See Language page
suck chupar chupar body pɨte; kaᵐbu See Language page
swell hincharse inchar body ᵐbovu; apeno; ruru See Language page
swim nadar nadar motion ɨta See Language page
think pensar pensar mental akãŋeta; moʔã; ǰesareko See Language page
throw tirar, lanzar atirar, jogar impact moᵐbo; itɨ See Language page
tie up/fasten atar, amarrar amarrar impact mosã; ɲapɨtĩ See Language page
turn girar, volter, torcer virar other ǰere; ᵐbo-ǰere may be transitive or intransitive See Language page
vomit vomitar vomitar body ɣʷeʔẽ See Language page
walk caminar, andar andar motion ɣʷata See Language page
work trabajar trabalhar other ᵐbaʔapo See Language page
yawn bostezar bocejar body ǰe-ǰurupeka; ǰe-ǰuru-peʔa See Language page
tongue lengua lingua body kũ See Language page
tooth diente dente body t-ãi See Language page
two dos dois number mokõi See Language page
water agua agua environment ɨ See Language page
1pl.incl nosotros (inclusivo) nós (inclusivo) grammar ɲaⁿde no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted See Language page
1pl.excl nosotros (exclusivo) nós (exclusivo) grammar ore See Language page
wet mojado molhado quality hɨkue; akɨ̃ See Language page
what? que, qué que grammar ᵐba'ʔepa See Language page
when? cuando quando grammar arakaʔe See Language page
where? donde onde grammar moõ See Language page
white blanco branco colour morotĩ See Language page
who? quien, quién quem grammar 'mavapa See Language page
wife esposa esposa kinship t-eᵐbireko See Language page
wind viento vento environment ɨvɨtu See Language page
wing ala asa body pepo See Language page
woman/female mujer mulher human kuɲa See Language page
yellow amarillo amarelo colour saʔɨ-ǰu; ǰu See Language page
2pl ustedes vocês grammar peẽ See Language page
foot pie pé body pɨ See Language page
again de nuevo, otra vez de novo grammar ǰevɨ; ǰeɨ See Language page
all todo todos other maɨma; opa; opavave; ɲavõ The latter is archaic. See Language page
ankle tobillo tornozelo body pɨ-ɲuã See Language page
armpit axila, sobaco axila body ǰɨva-ɣʷɨ See Language page
faeces heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol fezes body poti; [kaka] See Language page
lung pulmón pulmão body ɲeʔã ve'vui; ve'vɨi See Language page
sweat sudar suor, suar body t-ɨ'ʔai See Language page
itch hormiguear, sentir comezón coçar body t-e'mõi See Language page
bark corteza casca environment ape; pire See 'skin' 04.120; 'flay' 09.290; 'fish scale' 03.653. See Language page
fingernail uña unha body pɨapẽ; pɨsãpe Respectively: nail of the hand; nail of the foot. See Language page
heart corazón coração body ɲeʔã; pɨʔa See Language page
sun sol sol time kuarahɨ See Language page
mountain/hill montaña, colina, loma, cerro morro, serra environment ɨvɨ-tɨ Lit. 'earth-heap'. See Language page
green verde verde quality hovɨ See Language page
hot caliente quente quality h-aku See Language page


Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Linnean Name Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Etymology Notes Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Range of Term Word Structure Word Structure Notes Classifier Classifier Notes Hypernym Source Association with Social Categories Ritual/Mythologically Significant Ritual Notes Food Source Food Notes Medicinal Medicinal Notes How Collected Who Collects How Prepared Psychotropic Psychotropic Notes Traded Trade Notes Distribution Habitat Dangerous Ethnobiology Notes Species Notes General Notes
horse caballo cavalho flora-fauna Equus caballus See Language page
bat murciélago morcego flora-fauna Chiroptera spp. ᵐbopi See Language page
bird pajaro, ave passaro flora-fauna ɣʷɨra See Language page
curassow mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini) mutum flora-fauna Crax sp., Nothocrax sp. See Language page Amazonia
toucan tucán, pinsha (Peru) tucano flora-fauna Ramphastos sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
gray-winged trumpeter Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris jacamim flora-fauna Psophia crepitans See Language page Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
guan pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru) jacu flora-fauna Penelope sp. See Language page Different types have different localized ranges
tinamou tinamu, perdiz, gallineta inambu, inhambu flora-fauna family Tinamidae See Language page Widespread Amazonia
hummingbird colibrí, picaflor (Peru) beija-flor flora-fauna family Trochilidae See Language page Widespread
kingfisher martín pescador, catalan (Peru) martim-pescador flora-fauna family Alcedinidae See Language page Widespread Amazonia
owl (large) búho, lechuza corujão flora-fauna order Strigiformes urukureʔa; ɲakurutũ; kavure See Language page Widespread
macaw ara, guacamaya Arara flora-fauna family Psittacidae; Ara sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
parrot loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib) papagaio flora-fauna Amazona amazonica tuʔĩ para; ɣʷaʔa See Language page Widespread
dove paloma pomba flora-fauna family Columbidae pɨkasu; ǰeruti See Language page
hawk halcón, gavilán gavião flora-fauna family Accipitridae taɣʷato; kiri-kiri See Language page
vulture buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru) urubu flora-fauna family Cathartidae ɨrɨvu See Language page Widespread South America
duck pato pato, marreco flora-fauna Anatidae family ɨpe See Language page
great egret Garza Blanca, Guyratî Garça-Branca-Grande flora-fauna Ardea alba See Language page Widespread South America
woodpecker pájaro carpintero, carpintero pica-pau flora-fauna family Picidae See Language page Widespread Amazonia
dog (camp, domestic) perro cachorro flora-fauna Canis famililaris ǰaɣʷa See Language page Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog) sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta cachorro-do-mato flora-fauna Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis See Language page Widespread Amazonia
anteater oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus tamanduá flora-fauna Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater) See Language page Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo) tatu flora-fauna family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri See Language page Widespread in Amazonia
sloth pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru) macaco preguica flora-fauna Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
alligator, black caiman babilla; cachirre jacaré flora-fauna Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp. See Language page Throughout Amazonia Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
electric eel anguila eléctrica poraquê flora-fauna Electrophorus electricus See Language page
fish (generic) pez peixe flora-fauna pira See Language page
pacu fish palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru) pacu flora-fauna Mylossoma sp. See Language page
pirana piraña, caribe piranha flora-fauna subfamily Serrasalmidae See Language page Widespread Amazonia
tigerfish taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru) traíra flora-fauna Hoplias sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
mandi catfish maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish) mandi flora-fauna Auchenipterus sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
speckled catfish surubí, pintadillo surubim, sorubim flora-fauna Pseudoplatystoma sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia
toad sapo sapo flora-fauna order Anura See Language page
iguana iguana, garipiares (Colombia) camaleão flora-fauna Iguana sp. See Language page iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
small lizard lagartija calango flora-fauna order Squamata aᵐbere See Language page
stingray (generic) rayas látigo, raya arraia flora-fauna Potamotrygon sp. ǰave'vui; ǰave'vɨi See Language page
crab cangrejo caranguejo flora-fauna infraorder Brachyura See Language page
anaconda anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande sucuri flora-fauna genus Eunectes See Language page Widespread Amazonia
boa boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura jiboia flora-fauna family Boidae, subf. Boinae See Language page
snake (generic) culebra, serpiente cobra flora-fauna 'ᵐboi See Language page
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara jararaca flora-fauna Bothrops jararaca/atrox See Language page Widespread South America
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant) tortuga, morrocoy, motelo jabutí, tartaruga flora-fauna Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria karuᵐbe See Language page Widespread
Amazon dolphin bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco) boto cor-de-rosa flora-fauna Inia geoffrensis See Language page Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls
mushroom champiñón, hongo cogumelo flora-fauna (any edible generic) urupe See Language page prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
black palm bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá bacaba flora-fauna Oenocarpus bacaba See Language page Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
açai palm huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia) açaí flora-fauna Euterpe sp. See Language page floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
miriti palm moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti buriti flora-fauna Mauritia flexuosa See Language page Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps trunks contain sago-like starch
palm for roof thatch pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná caraná flora-fauna Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana See Language page Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests palm
paxiuba palm pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba paxiuba flora-fauna Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea See Language page Widespread Amazonia palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol) pupunha flora-fauna Bactris gasipaes (t)sɨ́rɨ (t)sɨ́rɨ [guarani antigo, Ruiz de Montoya (1639: 115v): ‘palmeira com que fazem pontas de flechas’ & guarani boliviano antigo, Santiago de León (1791: 87): ‘certo gênero de palmeiras com as quais se fazem flechas’; no entanto, essa palavra não é mencionad Ramirez and Victorino de França 2017:40
seje palm ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá patoá, patuá flora-fauna Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua See Language page mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
coca coca coca flora-fauna Erythroxylum coca See Language page secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes plant
cotton algodón algodão flora-fauna Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers) maⁿdɨǰu See Language page secondary scrub vegetation plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
kapok ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.) sumaumeira flora-fauna Ceiba pentandra See Language page northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas tree
hot pepper ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru) pimenta flora-fauna Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens kɨʔɨ̃i; kuᵐbari See Language page secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden plant
peanut maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete amendoim flora-fauna Arachis hypogaea See Language page plant
pineapple piña abacaxi flora-fauna Ananas comosus See Language page plant
arrow cane, wildcane caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio flora-fauna Gynerium sagittatum See Language page tropical regions, especially river banks plant
banana, plantain banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano banana flora-fauna Musa sp. pakova See Language page Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
beans frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas) feijão flora-fauna Phaseolus spp. kumaⁿda See Language page plant
grass hierba, pasto capim, grama flora-fauna (generic) ɲana; kapiʔipe See Language page
maize, corn mazorca, maiz milho flora-fauna Zea mays avati See Language page widespread, esp. in river floodplains plant
tobacco tabaco tabaco flora-fauna Nicotiana tabacum petɨ̃ See Language page plant
tree árbol arvore flora-fauna ɨvɨra See Language page
achiote, anatto achiote urucum flora-fauna Bixa orellana See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens shrub
inga guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru) inga flora-fauna Inga spp. See Language page Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
avocado palta, aguacate abacate flora-fauna Persea americana See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens tree
bitterwood tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru) envira flora-fauna Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala See Language page secondary forests, native to Brazil tree
brazil nut castaña castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis) flora-fauna Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia'] See Language page 1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua. tree
cashew anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela) caju flora-fauna Anacardium occidentale / giganteum See Language page secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
genipap jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico genipapo, jenipapo flora-fauna Genipapa americana See Language page widespread lowland SA shrub
japurá oreja de murcielago japurá flora-fauna Erisma japura See Language page large tree
rubber tree (sorva) caucho, siringa, shiringa seringa, borracha flora-fauna Hevea sp. See Language page Widespread Amazonia tree
ucuqui yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru) ucuqui flora-fauna Pouteria ucuqui See Language page native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
Amazon tree-grape uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.) cucura flora-fauna Pourouma cecropiifolia See Language page grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times a tree; not a true grape
manioc (bitter or generic) yuca brava mandioca flora-fauna Manihot esculenta maⁿdiʔo See Language page not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition. Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet) yuca, caribe macaxeira flora-fauna Manihot esculenta See Language page Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
potato papa batata flora-fauna Solanum tuberosum See Language page secondary scrub vegetation compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara batata-doce flora-fauna Ipomoea batatas ǰetɨ See Language page plant
cará tuber, purple or white camote, sachapapa cará roxo, branco flora-fauna Dioscorea sp. See Language page secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings plant
tannia, yautia huitina (Peru), ñame taioba branca flora-fauna Xanthosoma spp. See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree) calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara cabaça flora-fauna Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine) aⁿdai See Language page indigenous gardens plant; tree
squash calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru) abóbora flora-fauna Cucurbita sp. kurapepẽ See Language page plant
cipó vine tamishi, bejuco, yare cipó flora-fauna Heteropsis spp. ɨsɨpo See Language page secondary forest, floodplain vine
fish poison, barbasco barbasco, matapez (Colombia) timbó flora-fauna Lonchocarpus spp. poha ǰukaha; popĩa See Language page secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation Also pohã-mano; ǰukaha.
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca ayahuasca, yage ayahuasca, caapi flora-fauna Banisteriopsis caapi See Language page semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW vine
hallucinogenic snuff vilca, cebil, yopo paricá, yopo flora-fauna Anadenanthera sp. or virola See Language page
insect (generic) insecto insecto flora-fauna generic See Language page
ant (generic) hormiga formiga flora-fauna Formicidae ta'hɨi See Language page
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro tocandira flora-fauna Paraponera clavata See Language page
leaf-cutter ant Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse saúva flora-fauna Atta sp. See Language page
honeybee abeja abelha flora-fauna Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis eiru See Language page
cockroach cucaracha barata-do-mato flora-fauna order Blattaria tarave See Language page
firefly, lightning bug lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin) vagalume flora-fauna fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae muã; ɨsoiⁿdɨ See Language page
butterfly, moth mariposa borboleta flora-fauna order Lepidoptera panaᵐbi See Language page
moth mariposa nocturna, polilla mariposa flora-fauna order Lepidoptera See Language page
angleworm lombriz minhoca flora-fauna order Opisthopora sevoʔi See Language page
centipede ciempiés centopéia flora-fauna class Chilopoda aᵐbuʔa See Language page
scorpion escorpión; alacran escorpião flora-fauna order Scorpiones ǰapeusa See Language page
cicada cigarra, chicharra cigarra flora-fauna super fam. Cicadoidea See Language page
flea pulga pulga flora-fauna order Siphonaptera tũnᵑgusu See Language page
blowfly/housefly mosca mosca flora-fauna Diptera ᵐberu See Language page Cf. 'fly' (verb) 10.370.
cricket saltón, grillo grilo flora-fauna family Gryllidae See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil) suri, mojojoy larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá flora-fauna Rhynchophorus sp. See Language page
praying mantis, stick insects mantis religiosa louva-a-deus flora-fauna order Mantodea, family Mantidae See Language page
mosquito mosquito, zancudo mosquito, carapana flora-fauna Anopheles sp. ɲatiʔũ See Language page
termites, white-ants comején (Peru), termitas cupim flora-fauna order Isoptera See Language page
tick garrapata carrapato flora-fauna superfam Ixodoidea See Language page
wasp avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa caba flora-fauna order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita 'kava See Language page
snail caracol, churo (Peru) caracol flora-fauna class Gastropoda ǰatɨta; ǰatevu See Language page
spider araña aranha flora-fauna Arachnidae, Araneae ɲaⁿdu See Language page
jaguar yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru) onca flora-fauna Panthera onca See Language page
manatee vaca marina, manatí peixe-boi flora-fauna Trichechus sp. See Language page
brown woolly monkey Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt macaco barrigudo flora-fauna Lagothrix lagothricha See Language page
howler monkey (red-handed) mono aullador, mono coto (Peru) guariba flora-fauna Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.] See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero macaco prego flora-fauna Cebus apella See Language page
white-fronted capuchin Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru) Caiarara flora-fauna Cebus albifrons See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia) macaco aranha, coatá, quatá flora-fauna Ateles belzebuth/paniscus See Language page
opossum zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo mucura flora-fauna family Didelphidae mɨkurẽ See Language page
giant otter Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria ariranha flora-fauna Pteronura brasiliensis See Language page
neotropical otter (small) Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia) lontra flora-fauna Lontra longicaudis See Language page
collared peccary sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar caititu, caetitu flora-fauna Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu kure-kaʔaɣʷɨ See Language page
white-lipped peccary Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana queixada flora-fauna Tayassu pecari See Language page
porcupine puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru) cuandu, porco-espinho flora-fauna family Erethizontidae See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache quati flora-fauna genus Nasua kwatĩ (Mello2000) See Language page kwatĩ (Mello2000)
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti) Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado cutia flora-fauna Dasyprocta spp. See Language page
capybara Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco capivara flora-fauna Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris See Language page
green acouchi Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo cutiara flora-fauna Myoprocta pratti See Language page
paca (lowland) Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana) paca flora-fauna Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.) See Language page
mouse, rat ratón camundongo, rata flora-fauna Mus musculus aŋuǰa See Language page
squirrel ardilla, danta (Ven) serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo flora-fauna family Sciuridae See Language page
tapir sachavaca, danta anta flora-fauna Tapirus terrestris See Language page
deer venado veado, cariacu flora-fauna family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus ɣʷasu See Language page


Cultural Vocabulary (97)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes Word Structure Word Structure Notes General Notes Source
basket (general) canasta, canasto, cesta cesto culture-material aǰaka See Language page
basket, small canasta, canasto, cesta cesto pequeno, tampado culture-material See Language page
bead abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar miçanga culture-material kuru; ai; ᵐboʔɨ; poʔɨ See Language page
bed cama cama culture-material t-upa; iniᵐbe; t-eniᵐbe See Language page
hammock hamaca, chinchorro rede culture-material See Language page
bench, seat banco, silla, asiento banco culture-material apɨka See Language page
canoe canoa canoa transport ɨɣa See Language page
drum (large signal) tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia) tambor culture Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances See Language page
drum tambor tambor culture-mythology aᵑguʔa-tara; aŋuʔa-tarara See Language page
shaman, healer chamán, brujo xaman, pajé, feiticeiro culture-mythology ava-paǰe; kuɲa-paǰe Respectively: male; female. See Language page
healer curandero benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano) culture-mythology Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well. See Language page
broom escoba vassoura culture-material tɨpɨča See Language page
clothing ropa roupa culture-mythology ao See Language page
fence, palisade cerco cerca other [kora]; t-o'kai may be related to defense/warfare? See Language page
firewood leña lenha other ǰepeʔa See Language page
Curupira (spirit type) Curupira, Madremonte Curupira culture-mythology malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio espirito culture-mythology 'pora See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure dios(es), deidad divinidade, figura mítica culture-mythology ɲaⁿde-'ǰara; tupã In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc. See Language page
flute flauta, quena (Peru) flauta culture-mythology miᵐbɨ multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc. See Language page
panpipe carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora caniço, flauta de pã culture-mythology See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making canoa para chicha cocho de caxiri narcotics See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya) kapiwaya capiwaya culture-mythology See Language page
knife cuchillo faca culture-material kɨse See Language page
machete machete facão culture-material See Language page
axe/stone axe hacha (de piedra) machado (de pedra) subsistence tool ǰɨakãᵑga; ['hača] especially for clearing fields See Language page
arrow flecha flecha subsistence tool huʔɨ hunting, warfare See Language page
spear lanza lança subsistence tool huʔɨ; miᵐbuku Latter form is archaic. See Language page
bow arco arco subsistence tool ɨvɨrapa; ɣʷɨrapa arco See Language page
paddle/oar remo remo transport ɨɣasoǰaᵐbɨkɨ Latter is archaic form. See Language page
plate plato prato culture-material ɲaʔẽ-ᵐbe See Language page
pot olla, pote panela, vasilha subsistence tool ǰapepo See Language page
basin/bowl tazón, plato hondo, taza tijela culture-material ɲaʔẽ See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru) forno para beiju subsistence tool t-ata-kua agriculture? See Language page
rattle matraca, maraca marico, chocalho culture-mythology ɨvɨra-pu; kata-kata See Language page
resin resina, brea, copal resina, brea, breu subsistence tool See Language page
wax cera cera other araitɨ See Language page
honey miel mel food e'ira only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia? See Language page
stone for lighting fires piedra para hacer fuego pedra para acender fogo culture-material See Language page
rope/string mecate, cuerda, soga corda culture tukuᵐbo; sã See Language page
tattoo tatuaje, tatu tatuagem culture-mythology See Language page
thatch/roof crisneja palha, caraná culture-material 'oɣa-hoʔi-kapiʔi See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women) yurupari jurupari culture-mythology a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women. See Language page
fetish, charm fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga feitiço, puçanga culture-mythology See Language page
feather headdress plumaje, corona de plumas enfeite/capacete de penas culture-mythology See Language page
paint body, body paint pintura corporal pintura corporal culture-mythology See Language page
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven tierra do los muertos terra dos mortos culture-mythology ɨ'vaɣa Also means 'sky' 01.510. See Language page
school escuela escola acculturation See Language page
bottle botella garrafa acculturation See Language page
paper papel papel acculturation kuatia See Language page
dream sueño, soñar sonho, sonhar culture-mythology 'kerasɨ; ke See Language page
chicken gallina galinha acculturation rɨɣʷasu-raʔɨ See Language page
grave tumba, sepultura, sepulcro sepultura, sepulcro, cova culture-mythology t-ɨvɨ See Language page
pipe for tobacco pipa cachimbo other motiᵐboha; [ka'čiᵐbo] See Language page
sugarcane/sugar azúcar, caña de azúcar açucar (de cana) acculturation takuareʔẽ See Language page
skirt falda, saya, fustan, pollera saia culture-material 'sai See Language page
shoes zapatos sapatos dress [sapatu] See Language page
policeman polícia policía acculturation See Language page
soldier soldado soldado acculturation tetãreᵐbi'ɣʷai See Language page
cat gato gato acculturation ᵐbarakaǰa See Language page
gun arma, escopeta espingarda, fusil acculturation ᵐboka See Language page
hat sombero chapéu dress akãreheɣʷa; akãŋao Latter form is archaic. See Language page
chief/leader jefe, cacique chefe culture-mythology ᵐburuviča See Language page
club garrote, cachiporra clava, porrete subsistence tool vororei; takape See Language page
loincloth taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla tanga, tapa-sexo dress See Language page
fireplace hogar lareira other See Language page
fishing line cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze linha de pesca subsistence tool pira mosãha See Language page
salt sal sal food ǰukɨ See Language page
song (generic) canción, canto canção culture-mythology pura'hei See Language page
blowgun cerbatana, pucuna (Peru) zarabatana subsistence tool currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region See Language page
dart (blowgun) dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru) dardo, seta subsistence tool hunting and warfare See Language page
fan abanico abanador, abano subsistence tool peǰuha esp. for fanning a cooking fire See Language page
fish (with line) anzuelear, pescar con linea pescar (com linha) food See Language page
fish (with fish-poison) pescar con barbasco, barbasquear pescar com timbó; tinguijar food See Language page
hunt cazar caçar food ɣʷɨraʔapi; t-ɨᵐba-api; [mariska] See Language page
game animal caza, animal de caza caça, animal de caça food tɨmaba apɨ, soʔo moɲa (Mello2000) Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl) cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo cuia subsistence tool aⁿdai See Language page
grater rallador, rallo ralador, ralo subsistence tool karãiha (Mello2000) karãiha (Mello2000) See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf) barbacoa jirau subsistence tool ᵐbaʔeǰokoha; [sov'rado] See Language page
mortar mortero pilão subsistence tool aŋuʔa See Language page
pestle pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor mão de pilão subsistence tool avatisoka See Language page
fermented drink masato, chicha caxiri, chicha culture ǰeɨʔurã raɣʷɨno prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made See Language page
flour/meal from manioc fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina farinha food ava-timirikuʔi; huʔitĩ agriculture See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe beiju food usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits See Language page
starch (tapioca, other) almidón goma de tapioca food See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau cahuana, caguana mingau food agriculture See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer) tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca tipiti food word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc See Language page
tripod for washing manioc trípode tripé subsistence tool agriculture See Language page
venom for darts, poison veneno curare subsistence tool hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?) See Language page
woven strainer/sieve colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru) peneira, cumatá subsistence tool agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour See Language page
bait for fishing cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru) isca subsistence tool can refer to worms; more generic See Language page
fishtrap trampa de peces, trampa matapi, cacuri subsistence tool pira-ro'kai See Language page
bottom grinding stone manufacture if different word from top grinding stone See Language page
digging stick subsistence tool See Language page
top grinding stone metate, mano; piedra de moler metate, mano manufacture use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic) subsistence tool See Language page
spearthrower subsistence tool See Language page
house other 'oɣa See Language page


Grammatical Data (226)
Category Grammatical Feature Grammatical Feature: Notes Feature Status Grammatical Notes Source Etymology Notes General Notes Phylogenetic Code
Phonology - Segmental Pre-/post-nasalized stops Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive. yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:21
Phonology - Segmental Glottalized/ejective consonants Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative] no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:21
Phonology - Segmental Palatalized stops Phonemic contrast no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:21
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic vowel length Does the language have long and short vowels? no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:15-7
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:15-7
Phonology - Segmental Complex onsets Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme no No closed syllable is allowed in the language Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:22
Phonology - Segmental No codas *(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained] no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:22
Phonology - Segmental Word-final coda required Do all syllables end in a consonant? no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:22
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive tones Note how many contrastive tones no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:39
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive stress Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference? yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:25
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:34-7
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to? yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:34-7
Phonology - Suprasegmental Vowel harmony no info
Morphology - General Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb) Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number] no Zarratea 2002:86-120
Morphology - General Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes Stem change, tone no Zarratea 2002:86-120
Morphology - General Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes) Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word yes person/number affixes, voice and tense can appear together in the verb Zarratea 2002:86-120
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing There are many more prefixes than suffixes no Zarratea 2002:86-147
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing There are many more suffixes than prefixes yes Zarratea 2002:86-147
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different no Zarratea 2002:86-147
Morphology - General Reduplication: full The full morpheme is reduplicated no info more likely not
Morphology - General Reduplication: partial Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated no info more likely not
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive NN compounding Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced yes Ayala 1996:79-80
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV serialization (without compounding) Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV compounding Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap' no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Auxiliary verb(s) There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs no info
Morphology - Incorporation Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process Verb contains nominal segment yes Not sure if it is very productive Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:146
Morphology - Incorporation Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns no Zarratea 2002:69-118
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classes/genders Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP no Zarratea 2002:121-41
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Number of noun classes/genders Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders no Zarratea 2002:121-41
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders) Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain. no Zarratea 2002:121-41
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates Masculine, feminine, neuter yes But most of the nouns have masculine gender and a noun with feminine gender has to be specified as such lexically in most cases Zarratea 2002:121-41
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates no Zarratea 2002:121-41
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system Animate/inanimate, human/non-human no Zarratea 2002:121-41
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only no Ayala 1996:28
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates no Zarratea 2002:121-41
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates no Zarratea 2002:121-41
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification "Repeater" classifiers Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot" no Zarratea 2002:121-41
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals) Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals no Zarratea 2002:121-41
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.' no Zarratea 2002:121-41
Nominal Categories - Number Singular number may be marked on the noun Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups no Ayala 1996:65
Nominal Categories - Number Plural affix on noun no Ayala 1996:65
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun no Ayala 1996:65
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by reduplication of noun no Ayala 1996:65
Nominal Categories - Number Plural word/clitic yes Ayala 1996:65
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked on human or animate nouns only no info
Nominal Categories - Number Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns no Ayala 1996:28
Nominal Categories - Number Unique associative plural marker e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them' no Zarratea 2002:137-8
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Definite or specific articles Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only no However, it seems that the language have began to borrow the articles from Spanish Zarratea 2002:166
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness no info
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Indefinite or non-specific article or marker no Zarratea 2002:166
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:61
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound) yes Zarratea 2002:83
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number) Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system 2 Ayala 1996:29-31
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.) yes visibility and distance from the speaker and the from the hearer are other factors in guarani demonstratives Ayala 1996:29-31
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3sg pronouns no Ayala 1996:28
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3pl pronouns no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns no Ayala 1996:28
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Formal/informal distinction in pronouns Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns no Ayala 1996:28
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Reflexive pronouns e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix yes Ayala 1996:134-5
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Adpositions mark core NPs Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients yes postposition Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: number of cases Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun 2 Not sure about it. Subjects are not marked by case; objects are marked when they are person and animal but they take different postpositions; and indirect objects are all marked. Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: symmetrical All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity) no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: asymmetrical Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates yes It is kind of unexpected in terms of EAH that human and animal nouns are marked when they appear as objects but pronouns are not… Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: suffix or postpositional clitic yes postpostional clitic Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: prefix or prepositional clitic no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: infix or inpositional clitic no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: stem change no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: tone no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: comitative = instrumental Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument' no info
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-2 At least some part of the system involves base-2 no Ayala 1996:103-4
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-5 At least some part of the system involves base-5 no Ayala 1996:103-4
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-10 At least some part of the system involves base-10 no Ayala 1996:103-4
Nominal Categories - Numerals Other base (specify) 4, 20, etc. yes base 4 Ayala 1996:103-4
Nominal Categories - Numerals Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5 e.g. two = 'eye-quantity' no info Ayala 1996:103-4
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 5 'Many' or some other non-exact term used yes Numerals go up to 4 Ayala 1996:103-4
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 10 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no Ayala 1996:103-4
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival no info
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Person inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N alienable/inalienable? no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N alienable/inalienable? no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent e.g. 'the boy-'s dog' no It is hard to say if there is head or dependent marking since the possesor-possesum construction consists of only one word Ayala 1996:85-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head e.g. 'the boy his-dog' yes However, it is tricky to establish it because the possessive is an affix which goes in between the possessor and possessum and all these elements form a single word Ayala 1996:85-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession Possessive classifiers There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities no info more likely not
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of inalienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no Ayala 1996:85-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of alienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun) no Ayala 1996:85-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form no Ayala 1996:85-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of kin terms 'my-father' but *father no Ayala 1996:85-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal) 'my-leg' but *leg no Ayala 1996:85-7
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man) no Ayala 1996:85-7
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Underived adjectives There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:55
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:89
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival) There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:115
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer) There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:115-6
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song) There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:115
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive verbalizing morphology There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective yes There are more than 10 verbalizers These are mainly verbal suffixes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:116-8
Nominal Syntax - Other NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently 'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary' no info
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated past marker(s) Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere yes Ayala 1996:317-9
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. distant vs. recent past yes Ayala 1996:317-9
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. imminent vs. distant future yes Ayala 1996:317-9
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated future or non-past marker(s) yes Ayala 1996:317-9
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: prefix no Ayala 1996:317-9
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: suffix yes Ayala 1996:317-9
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut no Ayala 1996:317-9
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect suppletion no Ayala 1996:317-9
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood yes However, the "simple imperatve" does not get a distinct morpheme but it is distinguished from indicative sentences because it takes different person markers. Other types of imperatives do get a distinc marker. Notice that it is represented as -py in the s Zarratea 2002:108-9
Verbal Categories - Mood Polite imperative morpheme There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language) yes This is also called "friendly" imperative Zarratea 2002:108
Verbal Categories - Mood Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative) as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing' no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: affix on verb Inflectional marking of capacity to do something no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: verbal construction no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: other marking no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: affix on verb Modal expressing hypothesis yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:101
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: verbal construction no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:101
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: other marking no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:101
Verbal Categories - Mood Marking of expected/unexpected action or result There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:97-101
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal frustrative Modal expressing frustration ("in vain") no There is a verbal suffix marking "frustration" Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:97
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal habitual Modal expressing habituality no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:97
Verbal Categories - Mood Apprehensive construction There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens' no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Reality status marking on verbs There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events' no info
Verbal Categories - Mood Affect markers (positive/negative) Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative no info
Verbal Categories - Directionals Directional elements affixed to the verb There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc. no Ayala 1996:308-56
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized visual Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker no Ayala 1996:308-56
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized nonvisual Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt) no Ayala 1996:308-56
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized inferential Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker. no info
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized reportive Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly' no Zarratea 2002:83-120
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized quotative Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse no Zarratea 2002:83-120
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Other evidential Any other evidential values not represented above no Ayala 1996:308-56
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:101
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: part of tense system Includes portmanteau morphs no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:101
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: separate particle yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:101
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: modal morpheme no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:101
Verbal Categories - Verbal number Verbal number suppletion no Zarratea 2002:85
Verbal Categories - Other Social interaction markers Note the type of interaction no info
Word Order No fixed basic constituent order no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:136-7
Word Order VS in intransitive clauses Verb precedes subject no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:136
Word Order VS in transitive clauses no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:136-7
Word Order VO in transitive clauses Verb precedes object yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:136-7
Word Order OS in transitive clauses Object precedes subject no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:136-7
Word Order Preposition-Noun no Zarratea 2002:156-8
Word Order Noun-Postposition or case suffix yes Zarratea 2002:156-8
Word Order Gen-Noun Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book) yes Ayala 1996:85-6
Word Order Noun-Gen Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John') no Ayala 1996:85-6
Word Order Adj-Noun Adjective precedes the noun no Zarratea 2002:143
Word Order Noun-Adj Adjective follows the noun yes Zarratea 2002:143
Word Order Dem-Noun no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:65
Word Order Noun-Dem yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:65
Word Order Num-Noun no info
Word Order Noun-Num no info
Word Order Noun-Rel Relative clause follows noun that it modifies yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:152-3
Word Order Rel-Noun Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:152-3
Word Order Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative) e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away') no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:152-3
Word Order Relative clause is correlative or adjoined e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat' no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:152-3
Word Order Question word is clause initial 'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause yes Ayala 1996:39
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep) no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative no pronouns show a neuter alligment in which subject and object do not get case Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs yes Zarratea 2002 :83-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no Zarratea 2002 :83-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive no Zarratea 2002 :83-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3) no Zarratea 2002 :83-5
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: split More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc. no Zarratea 2002 :83-5
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects yes Ayala 1996:28-9
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option) yes Ayala 1996:28-9, 46-7
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option) no Ayala 1996:28-9, 46-7
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. no Ayala 1996:28-9, 46-7
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects no Ayala 1996:28-9, 46-7
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking on intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes yes Ayala 1996:46-7
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers yes Ayala 1996:46-7
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take object (P) markers yes Ayala 1996:46-7
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects 3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system no Ayala 1996:28-9, 46-7
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects 3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system yes Ayala 1996:46-7
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Number can be marked separately from person on the verb Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately no Ayala 1996:28-9, 46-7
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes no Ayala 1996:28-9, 46-7, 85-7
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Gender distinguished in verbal person markers For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent no Ayala 1996:28-9, 46-7
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: indirect object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently yes Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: double object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:130-1
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: secondary object In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal. yes Ayala 1996:140-1
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reflexive: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive. yes Zarratea 2002:98
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb no The reciprocal is marked by /-jo, ño/ Zarratea 2002:97
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Passive Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted yes The reflexive affix is added to the verb Ayala 1996:310-1
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Antipassive Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Other intransitivizing morphology There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: benefactive Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: other Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: prefix Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb yes For intransitive verbs Ayala 1996:233-6
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: suffix Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb yes For transitive verbs Ayala 1996:248-51
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix no Ayala 1996:233-51
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: serial verb or analytical construction Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization no Ayala 1996:233-51
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy' Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.' no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated sociative Indicates that causer participates in event no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence) There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency no info
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a preposed element Clausal negator is a preposed element no The negation marker is a kind of clitic whic resemples a circunfix which the /nda-/ part coming before the negated element and the /-i/ coming after the negated element. Ayala 1996:42-3
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a postposed element Clausal negator is a postposed element no Ayala 1996:42-3
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: affix Negatives: affix no Ayala 1996:42-3
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: particle Negatives: particle yes Ayala 1996:42-3
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: auxiliary verb Negatives: auxiliary verb no Ayala 1996:42-3
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: double Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas' yes Ayala 1996:42-3
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist' no info
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative expression 'I don't know' Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase no info
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: interrogative particle Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle yes Ayala 1996:37-8
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: verb morphology Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology no Ayala 1996:37-8
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: word order Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) no Ayala 1996:37-8
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: intonation only Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only no Ayala 1996:37-8
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Content questions: word order differs from declaratives Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.) yes Word order varies depending on which element is the focus Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:140-1
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: verbal Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position yes Ayala 1996:34-5
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: nominal Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position no Ayala 1996:34-5
Simple Clauses - Predication Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all) yes It seems that the language does not have a copular verb. Ayala 1996:34-5
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head) no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:152-9
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses. no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:152-9
Simple Clauses - Predication Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:152-9
Simple Clauses - Predication Relativizer is a verbal affix yes ha is the mos frequent relativizert but there are some others Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:152-9
Simple Clauses - Predication Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes) no Krivoshein and Acosta 2001:115-8, 152-9
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions Grammaticalized verbal desiderative Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it) yes Zarratea 2002:101
Simple Clauses - Other Clause chaining Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause. no info
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked switch-reference system There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined no info
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence yes Ayala 1996:323-4