Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Yavitero

Family: Arawakan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: yvt
Location: -9.82°, -67.43°
Notes: The last known speaker died in 1984.
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data

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Data Sources: Mosonyi, J. C., 1987. El idioma yavitero: ensayo de gramática y diccionario. Ph.D. diss., Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas.

Basic Vocabulary (191)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	General Notes	Source
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar				See Language page
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	waya-ha	waja-ha	no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted	See Language page
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	nuya-ha	nuja-ha	For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms	See Language page
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	niya-ha	nija-ha		See Language page
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	hiya-ha	hija-ha		See Language page
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	anini	anini		See Language page
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	ani-hi	ani-hi		See Language page
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	a'niye; hutaye	aʔnije; hutaje		See Language page
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar	ha'c̷inuwa	haʔtsinuwa		See Language page
all	todo	todos	other	huľi'ana	huľi'ana		See Language page
and	y	e	grammar	-na	-na		See Language page
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body				See Language page
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body	tánaye	tánaye		See Language page
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	jalítsi	halítsi		See Language page
at	en, a	em, a	location	íwa	íwa		See Language page
back	espalda	costas	body	tul'i	tulʔi		See Language page
bad	mal	mal	quality	kuľusi	kuľusi		See Language page
bark	corteza	casca	environment	kamújlita	kamúľ̥ita		See Language page
belly	barriga	barriga	body	huwite	huwite		See Language page
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location	jajlíye	hahlíye		See Language page
big	grande	grande	quality	iľ̥uwaľi-hi	iľ̥uwaľi-hi		See Language page
bite	morder	morder	body	tata	tata		See Language page
black	negro	preto	colour	mumu-hi	mumu-hi		See Language page
blood	sangre	sangue	body	miyani	mijani		See Language page
blow	soplar	soprar	body	huweha-hi; huwita	huweha-hi; huwita		See Language page
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body				See Language page
bone	hueso	osso	body	ihi-u	ihi-u		See Language page
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	c̷ini	tsini		See Language page
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	¢uha	tsuha		See Language page
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	kája	káha		See Language page
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body	jlámua	hlámua		See Language page
child	niño, niña	criança	human	ľ̥ihani	ľ̥ihani		See Language page
climb	subir	subir	motion	kuwa; ku'a	kuwa; kuʔa		See Language page
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment	ľ̥i'aľi-ľi enu 'smoke of sky'	ľ̥i'aľi-ľi enu 'smoke of sky'		See Language page
cold	frío	frio	quality	ka'winini	ka'winini		See Language page
come	venir	vir	motion	nuha	nuha		See Language page
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	hahua	hahua		See Language page
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality				See Language page
count	contar	contar	mental				See Language page
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	jáya	háya		See Language page
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	kétsu(a), tsiúka	kétsu(a), tsiúka		See Language page
day	día	dia	time	eɲahiľ̥i	eɲahiľ̥i		See Language page
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	wiyua	wijua		See Language page
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	hana ka'hac̷i	hana kaʔhatsi		See Language page
dingo/wolf			fauna				See Language page
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	éku(j)	éku(h)		See Language page
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	tahuni	tahuni		See Language page
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	ľ̥iya	ľ̥ija		See Language page
dry	seco	seco	quality	c̷uheta; c̷uweta	tsuheta; tsuweta		See Language page
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality	hata ka'mena-hi 'not sharp'	hata kaʔmena-hi 'not sharp'		See Language page
dust	polvo	poeira	environment				See Language page
ear	oreja	orelha	body	tasine	tasine		See Language page
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	ka'hac̷i	kaʔhatsi		See Language page
eat	comer	comer	body	eɲa; na	eɲa; na		See Language page
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	inesi-naha	inesi-naha		See Language page
eye	ojo	olho	body	huľisi	huľisi		See Language page
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body	c̷i'a	tsiʔa		See Language page
fall	caer	cair	motion	núma	núma		See Language page
far	lejos	longe	quality	teye(na)	teje(na)		See Language page
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	mungu; c̷ita	mungu; tsita		See Language page
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	ihi (dp91)	ihi (dp91)		See Language page
fear	miedo	medo	mental	ľ̥asita; ľ̥asia; hiľiha; ka'yunane	ľ̥asita; ľ̥asia; hiľiha; kaʔjunane		See Language page
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	ic̷u	itsu		See Language page
fingernail	uña	unha	body	c̷uľawi	tsul'awi		See Language page
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	kaľ̥i	kaľ̥i		See Language page
flow	fluir	fluir	motion	huľua	huľua		See Language page
flower	flor	flor	environment	jlóre	hlóre		See Language page
fly	volar	voar	motion	mita	mita		See Language page
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment				See Language page
foot	pie	pé	body	c̷ic̷i	tsitsi		See Language page
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	átasi	átasi		See Language page
good	bueno	bom	quality	yunihi-na	junihi-na		See Language page
green	verde	verde	quality	si'hutemi	si'hutemi		See Language page
grow	crecer	crescer	state	tawina	tawina		See Language page
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	mau, ic̷u 'body hair'	mau, itsu 'body hair'		See Language page
hand	mano	mão	body	kahahi	kahahi		See Language page
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	sihu	sihu		See Language page
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	keheta	keheta		See Language page
heart	corazón	coração	body	huwite	huwite		See Language page
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	sina-hi	sina-hi		See Language page
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	waľia; mawata	waľia; mawata		See Language page
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	má, jújuta	má, húhuta		See Language page
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	kasita (hold, get)	kasita (hold, get)		See Language page
hot	caliente	quente	quality	atawaľihi	atawaľihi		See Language page
how?	como	como	grammar	jlána	hlána		See Language page
if	si	se	grammar	íjlanája	íhlanáha		See Language page
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	íye, íyesitena	íye, íyesitena		See Language page
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	¢i'a-hi (¢i'a = excrement)	tsiʔa-hi		See Language page
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body				See Language page
kill	matar	matar	impact	ma	ma		See Language page
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	wita	wita		See Language page
lake	lago	lago	environment				See Language page
laugh	reír	rir	mental	táteja	táteha		See Language page
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	hasi	hasi		See Language page
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	ga'nuľ̥i	gaʔnuľ̥i		See Language page
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	ku¢u	kutsu		See Language page
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	jájita, juínta	háhita, huínta		See Language page
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	mélika(mélimelika) énu, íye énu (íye 'angry' + énu 'sky')	mélika(mélimelika) énu, íye énu (íye 'angry' + énu 'sky')		See Language page
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body	hac̷ika; huhe	hatsika; huhe		See Language page
liver	hígado	figado	body	hane	hane		See Language page
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	a'ľ̥utu-hi	a'ľ̥utu-hi		See Language page
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	tsuída	tsuída	order Phtiraptera	See Language page
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	júwite, júwitetunaja	húwite, húwitetunaha		See Language page
man/male	hombre	homem	human	enami	enami		See Language page
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	enami	enami		See Language page
moon	luna	lua	environment	keľi	keľi		See Language page
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	iľ̥uami	iľ̥uami		See Language page
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	yaha	jaha		See Language page
mouth	boca	boca	body	numa	numa		See Language page
name	nombre	nome	human	iľ̥iwanaha	iľ̥iwanaha		See Language page
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body	tusiwa	tusiwa		See Language page
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	ka'ľehana	kaʔľehana		See Language page
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	ínu	ínu		See Language page
new	nuevo	novo	quality	a'wemaľi	a'wemaľi		See Language page
night	noche	noite	time	yaľ̥i-na	jaľ̥i-na		See Language page
no/not	no	não	grammar	játa, yáma	háta, yáma		See Language page
nose	nariz	nariz	body	siwi	siwi		See Language page
old	viejo	velho	quality	a'winesitami	a'winesitami		See Language page
one	uno	um	number	há(sai)(na) (dp91), hasi'ana	há(sai)(na) (dp91), hasi'ana		See Language page
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	kálaja	kálaha		See Language page
other	otro	outro	grammar				See Language page
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body	maʔľ̥ikaľi; kuľusi	maʔľ̥ikaľi; kuľusi		See Language page
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	ka'mewa	ka'mewa		See Language page
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	dac̷ika	datsika		See Language page
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	jlía	hlía		See Language page
red	rojo	vermelho	colour	sitami	sitami		See Language page
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body	minaľi (lit. 'chief, boss')	minaľi (lit. 'chief, boss')		See Language page
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	ta'nehu	taʔnehu		See Language page
root	raíz	raiz	flora	iwinaha	iwinaha		See Language page
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	méteji(ji)	métehi(hi)		See Language page
sand	arena	areia	environment	ka'hac̷i-na	ka'hatsi-na		See Language page
say	decir	dizer	mental	ma	ma		See Language page
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact				See Language page
see	ver	ver	mental	nita	nita		See Language page
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	ka'mena-hi	kaʔmena-hi		See Language page
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	ľ̥inua; c̷awita 'shoot arrow'	ľ̥inua; tsawita 'shoot arrow'		See Language page
short	corto	curto	quality	u'wima-hi; witasima-hi.	uʔwima-hi; witasima-hi.		See Language page
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	kuľuhasi (lit. 'root of arm')	kuľuhasi (lit. 'root of arm')		See Language page
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental				See Language page
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	játsika	hátsika		See Language page
skin	piel	pele	body	itamaka	itamaka		See Language page
sky	cielo	céu	environment	énu	énu		See Language page
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	c̷ima	tsima		See Language page
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	witasima-hi	witasima-hi		See Language page
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	ľ̥i'aľi; ľ̥i'aľiľi	ľ̥i'aľi; ľ̥i'aľiľi		See Language page
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	ľ̥imeta	ľ̥imeta	primarily transitive	See Language page
spit	escupir	cuspir	body	kuma; ľ̥uheta.	kuma; ľ̥uheta.		See Language page
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	huľeta; kuhaha	huľeta; kuhaha		See Language page
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	tájija	táhiha		See Language page
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact	maľ̥ika	maľ̥ika		See Language page
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	kac̷ia	katsia		See Language page
star	estrella	estrela	environment	wiwinaľi	wiwinaľi		See Language page
steal	robar	roubar	other	jújata	húhata		See Language page
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	ata	ata		See Language page
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	siha	siha		See Language page
suck	chupar	chupar	body	ľ̥iya (also 'drink')	ľ̥ija (also 'drink')		See Language page
sun	sol	sol	time	ka'muľ̥i	ka'muľ̥i		See Language page
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body	jájlata (noun)	háhlata (noun)		See Language page
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	játa	háta		See Language page
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	ku'inta	ku'inta		See Language page
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	hiľ̥i	hiľ̥i		See Language page
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar	íya	íja		See Language page
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	ajtúmina(ji), íjluwali(ji)	ahtúmina(hi), íhluwali(hi)		See Language page
thin	delgado	fino	quality	huwiha-hi	huwiha-hi		See Language page
think	pensar	pensar	mental	naniwata	naniwata		See Language page
this	este/esta	este	grammar	íni	íni		See Language page
three	tres	tres	number	te'resi	te'resi		See Language page
throat	garganta	garganta	body	kanasi	kanasi		See Language page
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	yuta; wahi	yuta; wahi		See Language page
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	iye enu	iye enu		See Language page
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	kálita	kálita		See Language page
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	tate	tate		See Language page
tooth	diente	dente	body	eľ̥i	eľ̥i		See Language page
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other			may be transitive or intransitive	See Language page
two	dos	dois	number	c̷i'naha	tsi'naha		See Language page
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	tésia	tésia		See Language page
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	heha; kac̷ic̷ia	heha; katsictsa		See Language page
water	agua	agua	environment	weni	weni (=river)		See Language page
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	keľ̥a-hi	keľ̥a-hi		See Language page
what?	que, qué	que	grammar				See Language page
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	ájetsa, játsa	ájetsa, játsa		See Language page
where?	donde	onde	grammar	kisa	kisa		See Language page
white	blanco	branco	colour	ka'haľi-hi	ka'haľi-hi		See Language page
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	méjli	méľ̥i		See Language page
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	hiľ̥u	hiľ̥u		See Language page
wind	viento	vento	environment	uwítsi	uwítsi		See Language page
wing	ala	asa	body	tanahasi	tanahasi		See Language page
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	ľ̥a'ľinemi	enami		See Language page
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	játata, jájajata	hátata, háhahata		See Language page
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body	hahahata	hahahata		See Language page
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	si'hutemi	si'hutemi		See Language page


1pl.excl
1pl.incl
1sg
2pl
2sg
3pl
3sg
above
again
all
and
ankle
armpit
ash
at
back
bad
bark
belly
below
big
bite
black
blood
blow
boil/pimple
bone
breast
breathe
burn
chew
child
climb
cloud
cold
come
cook
correct/true
count
cry
cut/hack
day
die/be dead
dig
dingo/wolf
dirty
dream
drink
dry
dull/blunt
dust
ear
earth/soil
eat
egg
eye
faeces
fall
far
fat/grease
father
fear
feather
fingernail
fire
flow
flower
fly
fog
foot
fruit
good
green
grow
hair (of head)
hand
head
hear
heart
heavy
hide
hit
hold
hot
how?
if
in/inside
intestines
itch
kill
know/be knowledgeable
lake
laugh
leaf
left/left hand
leg/foot
lie down
lightning
live/be alive
liver
long
louse
lung
man/male
meat/flesh
moon
mother
mountain/hill
mouth
name
nape
near/close
neck
new
night
no/not
nose
old
one
open/uncover
other
pain/painful/sick
person/human being
pound/beat
rain
red
right/right hand
road/path
root
rotten
sand
say
scratch
see
sharp
shoot
short
shoulder
shy/ashamed
sit
skin
sky
sleep
small
smoke
sniff/smell
spit
split
squeeze
stab/pierce
stand
star
steal
stick/wood
stone
suck
sun
sweat
swell
swim
tail
that
thick
thin
think
this
three
throat
throw
thunder
tie up/fasten
tongue
tooth
turn
two
vomit
walk
water
wet
what?
when?
where?
white
who?
wife
wind
wing
woman/female
work
yawn
yellow

Showing 1 to 191 of 191 entries

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Source	Distribution	General Notes
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	shrub
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	wayútu	wajútu	See Language page
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	kai'manu	kai'manu	See Language page	Throughout Amazonia	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis	múna	múna	See Language page	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia			See Language page	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	a tree; not a true grape
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	kéni kajátsi	kéni kahátsi	See Language page
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae			See Language page
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)	mulújli	mulúľ̥i	See Language page	Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	yána	jána	See Language page	Widespread in Amazonia
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum			See Language page	tropical regions, especially river banks	plant
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.			See Language page	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.	ha'ľatana (Sp loan)	ha'ľatana (Sp loan)	See Language page		Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.	wayu	waju	See Language page
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.	ku'mana	ku'mana	See Language page		plant
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		niľ̥i 'bird, animal'	niľ̥i 'bird, animal'	See Language page
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala			See Language page	secondary forests, native to Brazil	tree
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba			See Language page	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	julétsilu	julétsilu	See Language page
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae			See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	ku'asi (large gourd); kaľia (small gourd)	ku'asi (large gourd); kaľia (small gourd)	See Language page	indigenous gardens	plant; tree
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']			See Language page	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	tree
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha			See Language page
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata	manéjli	manéľ̥i	See Language page
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	kahuľi	kahuľi	See Language page
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris			See Language page
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	plant
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda			See Language page
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea	tsitsárra [Sp. loan?]	tsitsárra	See Language page
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.			See Language page	secondary forest, floodplain	vine
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	plant
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria	kumálala	kumálala	See Language page
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu			See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua	kajíjli	kahíľ̥i	See Language page
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura			See Language page
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae	jítsi	hítsi	See Language page
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.			See Language page	Amazonia
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	ma'tahiyu	ma'tahiju	See Language page
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	ku'aiľ̥i	ku'aiľ̥i	See Language page	Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis	mábulibuli	mábulibuli	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae	c̷uc̷ubu	tsutsubu	See Language page
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family	patu	patu (Spanish loan)	See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.			See Language page
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus			See Language page
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae	túke, kukúwi	túke, kukúwi	See Language page
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		kuhási (dp91), simasi	kuhási (dp91), simasi	See Language page
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.	kúya, unája	kúja, unáha	See Language page	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	shrub/tree
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	c̷u'ida	tsu'ida	See Language page
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana			See Language page	widespread lowland SA	shrub
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis	néwi	néwi	See Language page
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)	yewaľi	jewaľi	See Language page
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans	dúliu	dúliu	See Language page	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba	máli	máli	See Language page	Widespread South America
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti			See Language page
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.	mátsi	mátsi	See Language page	Different types have different localized ranges
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola			See Language page
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi			See Language page	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	vine
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae	ku'kuwi	ku'kuwi	See Language page
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	maha	maha	See Language page
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus	ka'wayu	kaʔwaju	See Language page
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens	atsítsi (dp91)	atsítsi (dp91)	See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	plant
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]			See Language page
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	burujlana	buruľ̥ana	See Language page	Widespread
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.	iwána	iwána	See Language page		iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.			See Language page	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic			See Language page
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	kuáijli	kuáiľ̥i	See Language page
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura			See Language page		large tree
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra	amíti	amíti	See Language page	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	tree
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae	tsátsali	tsátsali	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.	ka'wihic̷u	ka'wihitsu	See Language page
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	kana	kana	See Language page	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	plant
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.	manití (Spanish loan?)	manití (Spanish loan?)	See Language page
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	kaľ̥esi; yuku (plant)	kaľ̥esi; juku (plant)	See Language page	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta			See Language page	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa	téwi	téwi	See Language page	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	trunks contain sago-like starch
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	ma'hiti; a'niyu	maʔhiti, aʔniyu	See Language page
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera			See Language page
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus	a'ľamuľu	a'ľamuľu	See Language page
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)			See Language page		prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis	wanáyali	wanájali	See Language page
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae			See Language page
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes	ma'kuku	ma'kuku	See Language page	Widespread
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)	páka (loan)	páka (loan)	See Language page
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.	ajlíyaja	aľ̥íjaha	See Language page
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana	hu'ne¢i (thatch roof)	huʔnetsi (thatch roof)	See Language page	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	palm
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica	ku'ľi-kuľi	ku'ľi-kuľi	See Language page	Widespread
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea	kúja	kúha	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes			See Language page
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea			See Language page		plant
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus			See Language page		plant
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae	uma (dp91)	uma (dp91)	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae	wála	wála	See Language page
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum	batáta, élu	batáta, élu	See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	elu (dp91), eľu; ba'tata	elu (dp91), eľu; ba'tata	See Language page		plant
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae			See Language page
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.	gúma	gúma	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	tree
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones	c̷ec̷e	tsetse	See Language page
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua			See Language page	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia	may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.	wamú, tsíkedali	wamú, tsíkedali	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata	ku'itu	ku'itu	See Language page
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda	karakólu	karakólu	See Language page
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		u'meni	u'meni	See Language page
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox			See Language page	Widespread South America
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae	uľu	uľu	See Language page
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.	u'wiyama 'pumpkin, squash' (Carib loan?)	u'wijama 'pumpkin, squash'	See Language page		plant
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae	matéti	matéti	See Language page
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.	yajíwe	jahíwe	See Language page
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.	bilína	bilína	See Language page
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	kéma (dp91)	kéma (dp91)	See Language page
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera	kamáta	kamáta	See Language page
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea	tujáli	tuháli	See Language page
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.	yawíleje	jawílehe	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae	tújulu	túhulu	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	tu'kutua	tu'kutua	See Language page
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum	jema (dp91)	jema (dp91)	See Language page		plant
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	sihú[li] (dp91), mata-'matu 'turtle'	sihú[li] (dp91), mata-'matu 'turtle'	See Language page	Widespread
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.	yukúwe	jukúwe	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		ata	ata (=wood)	See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella	huatsĩ (dp91)	huatsĩ (dp91)	See Language page
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui			See Language page	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae			See Language page	Widespread South America
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita	ani	ani	See Language page
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons	awámi	awámi	See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus			See Language page
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari	ahija (dp91)	ahija (dp91)	See Language page
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae	yatútsi	jatútsi	See Language page	Widespread Amazonia

Showing 1 to 133 of 133 entries

Cultural Vocabulary (97)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	General Notes	Source
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology				See Language page
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	ʃumetsa, c̷awita	ʃumetsa, tsawita	hunting, warfare	See Language page
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	¢uwa	tsuwa	especially for clearing fields	See Language page
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool	imanaha	imanaha	can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material				See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	ka'ha-miaľ̥i	ka'ha-miaľ̥i		See Language page
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material				See Language page
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material				See Language page
bed	cama	cama	culture-material	kama (Spanish loan)	kama (Spanish loan)		See Language page
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	bánku (loan)	bánku (loan)		See Language page
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool	watája	watáha	currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool				See Language page
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation				See Language page
bottom grinding stone			manufacture			if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	[ta]po; c̷a'wituľeľ̥i	[ta]po; ts̷aʔwituľeľ̥i	arco	See Language page
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material	ka'ha-miaľ̥i	ka'ha-miaľ̥i		See Language page
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	ku'aľ̥a	ku'aľ̥a		See Language page
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	gatu (Sp loan)	gatu (Sp loan)		See Language page
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	ku'ame	kuʔame		See Language page
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	minaľi	minaľi		See Language page
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	nawa	nawa		See Language page
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool				See Language page
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology			malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool			hunting and warfare	See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology	Napiruľi	Napiruľi	In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool				See Language page
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	tahuni	tahuni		See Language page
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology	tam'buru (Spanish loan)	tam'buru (Spanish loan)		See Language page
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture			Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool	mahu'ita	mahu'ita	esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology				See Language page
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other	ku'rara ~ ku'ľaľa	ku'rara ~ ku'ľaľa	may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture	ya'ľaki	ya'ľaki	prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology				See Language page
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other				See Language page
firewood	leña	lenha	other	ka(ɬi) (dp91), kaľ̥i	ka(ɬi) (dp91), kaľ̥i		See Language page
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food				See Language page
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food				See Language page
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool				See Language page
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool	ka'kuľi	ka'kuľi		See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food	a'husi	aʔhusi	usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food	ľ̥i'weľ̥i	ľ̥i'weľ̥i	agriculture	See Language page
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology	ya'huľuľu	ja'huľuľu	multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food	niľ̥i 'bird, animal'	niľ̥i 'bird, animal'	Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	a'meľ̥ami 'soul, espirit', ka'c̷imehe	a'meľ̥ami 'soul, espirit', ka'tsimehe		See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	ku'asi (large gourd); kaľia (small gourd)	kuʔasi (large gourd); kaľia (small gourd)		See Language page
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool			esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology	hihita-kade 'bury-place'	hihita-kade 'bury-place'		See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool				See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool			agriculture?	See Language page
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	mu'kawa	mu'kawa		See Language page
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	amáija	amáiha		See Language page
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	c̷a'hewa	tsaʔhewa (Pt/Sp loan)		See Language page
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology	jinájatali	hináhatali	Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics				See Language page
honey	miel	mel	food	íja maha (íja 'juice'+ maha 'bee')	íja máha (íja 'juice'+ máha 'bee')	only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page
house			other	hana; huwi	hana; huwi		See Language page
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	winahata	winahata		See Language page
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	ku'c̷iyu (Spanish loan)	ku'tsiju (Spanish loan)		See Language page
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress				See Language page
machete	machete	facão	culture-material				See Language page
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool	wi'yaľ̥i	wi'jaľ̥i		See Language page
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	néju	néhu		See Language page
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology				See Language page
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology				See Language page
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	ha'hela (Sp loan)	haʔhela (Sp loan)		See Language page
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool	wi'yaľ̥i	wi'jaľ̥i		See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other				See Language page
plate	plato	prato	culture-material	ha'ľatu	ha'ľatu (Spanish loan)		See Language page
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation				See Language page
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	aniuľ̥i	aniuľ̥i		See Language page
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology				See Language page
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool	mani	mani		See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology				See Language page
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	c̷ima-naha	¢ima-naha		See Language page
salt	sal	sal	food	yu'kira	juʔkira		See Language page
school	escuela	escola	acculturation	kanainta-kade maľ̥ikuyu 'place where children learn'	kanainta-kade maľ̥ikuju 'place where children learn'		See Language page
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology	ma'riri	maʔriri	In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress	c̷a'hatu (Sp loan)	tsaʔhatu (Sp loan)		See Language page
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material	nawa	nawa		See Language page
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation	c̷u'rudawa (Sp loan)	tsuʔrudawa (Sp loan)		See Language page
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology				See Language page
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	lansa (Spanish loan)	lansa (Spanish loan)		See Language page
spearthrower			subsistence tool	lansa (Sp loan)	lansa (Sp loan)		See Language page
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food				See Language page
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material				See Language page
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	min'deľe	min'deľe		See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food			agriculture	See Language page
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology				See Language page
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material	hu'ne¢i (thatch roof)	huʔnetsi (thatch roof)		See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food			word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture			use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool			agriculture	See Language page
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool	mawáuli	mawáuli	hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page
wax	cera	cera	other	maha-c̷ia 'bee-excrement'	maha-tsia 'bee-excrement'		See Language page
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	c̷u'ayuta	tsuʔajuta	agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology			a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page

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Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	no	Mosonyi notes that there are compounds, but it is not very productive and the process of productive compounding is in the beginning stages of development.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 45-46
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	yes	Possible to have a number of verbs strung together without subordination (although this is covered in a section on subordination). All verbs receive person-marking.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 93
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	no	Possible to chain verbs, but they are separate words.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 93
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no info
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes	Some aspectual information is conveyed using auxiliary verbs. Both auxiliary and main verbs have person-referencing prefixes in constructions with auxiliary verbs.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64-65
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-69
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-69
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-69
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-69
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-69
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-69
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	no info
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	no info
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	no	No discussion of incorporation in chapter on verbs.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-69
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no	No discussion of incorporation in chapter on verbs.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-69
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 54
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	0	All relations seem to use prepositions, although these prepositions are prefixed with personal-reference markers.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 53
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	n/a	All grammatical relations indicated with prepositions.	Mosonyi, 1987: 54
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	no	No case marking.	Mosonyi, 1987: 52-55
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no		Mosonyi, 1987: 52-55
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 52-53
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no	Prepositions. Prepositions also take a cross-referencing prefix that agrees with the object of the preposition.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 52-53
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 52-53
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 52-53
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 52-53
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 53
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no	A class of articles is 'inexistent' in Yavitero.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 50
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 50
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no	No articles.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 50, 78-79
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 48
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Mosonyi, 1987: 60-62
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	3		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 49
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		yes	Visbility: The farthest degree of distance distinguishes between items that are visible and those that are not visible.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 49
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes	There is a sex-based gender distinction, found in pronouns, demonstratives, and personal-reference affixes.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	3	Masculine, feminine, and plural (both genders).	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 49
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	no	No mention of classifiers in chapter on nouns.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-48
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no	The masculine gender is default, while feminine gender is assigned only to feminine animates.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36, 49
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	yes	The masculine gender is default, while feminine gender is assigned only to feminine animates.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 49
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 41
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no	No classifiers identified.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-38
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no	No classifiers identified.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-48
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no	There do not seem to be any classifiers.	Mosonyi, 1987
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no	No classifiers mentioned in sections on nouns or numerals.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-48, 78
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	no	Not listed under derivational processes.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 46-48
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes	Used emphatically, the singular form can be used with either a singular or plural meaning. -nawi is the normal plural marker, -je is used on a small set of nouns (mostly words for humans, but also íkule 'thing, belonging.')	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no	Examples of plural marking on janíjli 'house,' and síja 'stone.'	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no	1st and 2nd pronominal plurals are completely suppletive. The third-person plural uses the third-person singular form plus another morpheme -ni, but this isn't the same plural marker used elsewhere.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 41
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no	Yavitero only has native words up to two, it uses Spanish loans above two.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 78
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	no
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 78
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 78
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 78
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes	To express past or future time, the same indicators are used as in the verbal conjugation.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 87-88
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes	On adjectives, but not on nouns. Nouns indicate person with full NPs or free pronominals.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 87-88
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 41, 48
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 41, 48
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 41, 48
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 41, 48
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no	Mosonyi identifies "reflexive" pronouns on page 41, but these seem to be emphatic possessive prefixes ('his own.')	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 68-69
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	yes	Mosonyi suggests a class of adjectives distinction from verbs, on the basis that adjectives take cross-referencing suffixes, while verbs take both suffixes (O) and prefixes (S, A). This may be better described as an active-inactive alignment system. Howev	Mosonyi, 1987: p 55-56
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	yes	In the third person, 'adjectives' take separate suffixes if they are describing a male or female referent.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 56
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 46-48
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 47
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	yes	as in tésiasi 'vomit' from tésia 'vomitar'	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 47
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	no	No mention of a verbalizer under verbs or nouns.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 45-47, 69-70
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no info
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 38
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 38
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 38
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes	The head gets a marker to agree with the dependent. In the case of alienable nouns, it also gets a marker showing that it's possessed.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 38
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 38
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 38
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 39
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	yes	Uncommon in everyday speech.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 38
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no		Mosonyi (1987), p. 26
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Mosonyi (1987), p. 26
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no		Mosonyi (1987), p. 26
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	no		Mosonyi (1987), p. 26
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Mosonyi (1987), p. 26
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Mosonyi (1987)
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	yes	Only /n/ can be a coda in Yavitero words.	Mosonyi (1987): p. 31
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Mosonyi (1987)
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no	Mosonyi notes that the pitch accent of Baniwa is reduced to an "accent of intensity."	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 25-26
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	yes	The intensity accent has "phonemic power.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 30
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no		Mosonyi (1987): p. 31
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no		Mosonyi (1987): p. 31
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no info
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	no	No case marking on NPs.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-48
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-48
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-48
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-48
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-48
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		no	No case marking on pronouns.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-49
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-49
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-49
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-49
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 36-49
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	yes	S and A are marked with prefixes, O is marked with suffixes. Adjectives are also marked with suffixes, but they do seem to form a separate class, suggesting nominative-accusative, rather than active-inactive, alignment.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-62
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-62
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-62
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-62
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-62
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	yes	The particle tálima is invariable and doesn't seem to be a verb.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 67
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64, 79
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	yes	The negation marker is a particle that appears immediately before the verb, so it would normally be the first thing in the clause.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no	Strings of three or four verbs can be combined, but all carry their own person markers. No mention of whether all verbs get tense/aspect marking.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 93
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 93
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69, 93
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	yes	Adjectives take personal reference suffixes to reference the subject, while nouns must take either full pronouns or full NPs as arguments and verbs can also take cross-referencing prefixes. All can take time affixes when used predicatively.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 55, 87-88
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no	Adjectives take personal reference suffixes to reference the subject, while nouns must take either full pronouns or full NPs as arguments and verbs can also take cross-referencing prefixes. All can take time affixes when used predicatively.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 55, 87-88
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	yes	Examples in Mosonyi (1987) do not have copulas.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 88
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 94
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 94
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no		Mosonyi, 1987:p. 94
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 69
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 46-48, 69
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 60-61
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes	Yavitero verbs always carry cross-referencing prefixes, so this may be better described as "pro-drop."	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 60-61
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 59-62
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 48, 61-62
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	yes	Free pronouns are used for emphasis. They precede the verb, while full NP subjects follow the verb.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 61-62
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	yes	Mosonyi demonstrates person-marking with two intransitive verbs.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 60
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 62
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 62
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	yes	Masculine third-person, but not feminine.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 41, 60
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	yes	There can be a marker, but ø for third-person objects is also common.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 62
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no		Mosonyi, 1987: 41, 60, 62
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: 41, 60
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	yes	In third-person singular, masculine and feminine are distinguished.	Mosonyi, 1987: 41, 60
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	yes	There is a preposition to introduce a recipient, but not a theme.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 53
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 53
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 53
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 68-69
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 68-69
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 68-69
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66-69
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66-69
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66-69
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66-69
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 68
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 68
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 68
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	yes	Using verbs wé 'let,' má 'make' or wénija, 'order.'	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 68, 91
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no info
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66-69
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-64
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-64
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no	No regular future tense	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-64
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		no	No regular past/non-future tense.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-64
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 65
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes	Some aspectual information is also conveyed using auxiliary verbs.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 65
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 65
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 65
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		n/a	No evidentials	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	n/a		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		n/a		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		n/a		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 65
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no	Imperatives in general do not make use of special morphology, so a hortative meaning is expressed using the relevant person-marking.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 64
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		yes	Described as a "potestativo," this auxiliary verb is also used in "obligative" constructions.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 68
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 68
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		yes	Several particles can indicate doubt or 'maybe.'	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 68
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66-69
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66-69
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66-69
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66-69
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no	There are morphemes indicating "conditional," "desiderative," etc., but no realis/irrealis distinction.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 66-69
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	n/a		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		n/a		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 63-69
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 62
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	yes	When the subject of the verb is a noun, rather than a pronoun, the verb normally precedes the subject.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 62
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		yes	The verb must be at the beginning and either of the orders are accepted VOS or VSO	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 67, 90
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	yes	The verb must be at the beginning and either of the orders are accepted VOS or VSO	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 90
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	yes	This is the preferred interpretation, but also possible to use VSO order or interpret a sentence as VSO.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 90
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		yes	Prepositions. Prepositions also take a cross-referencing prefix that agrees with the object of the preposition.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 52-53
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 53
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	no	All examples of possessive noun phrases show a noun-gen pattern.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 37
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	yes	All examples of possessive noun phrases show a noun-gen pattern.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 37
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 58
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	yes	The order can be reversed, but noun-adj is the most frequent and normal.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 58
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes	Examples are all Dem-Noun, although this doesn’t seem to be made explicit.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 50
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 50
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes	In the examples, all are Num-Noun	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 78
Word Order	Noun-Num		no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 78
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 94
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 94
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 94
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Mosonyi, 1987: p. 94
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes	All examples on page 79 have the question word/question phrase in initial position.	Mosonyi, 1987: p. 79

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