Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Bora

Family: Boran
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: boa
Location: -2.91°, -68.91°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data

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Data Sources: Aschmann, R. P. 1993. Proto Witotoan, SIL and University of Texas at Arlington Publications in Linguistics, 114. Dallas: SIL and University of Texas at Arlington. Rodriguez, José Vicente, compiler, and others. 1995. Mamíferos colombianos: sus nombres comunes e indígenas. Bogotá: Conservation International, Fundación Mario Santo Domingo. Seifart, Frank. 2005. The structure and use of shape-based noun classes in Miraña (North West Amazon). Hannover. Thiesen, Wesley. 1996. Gramatica del Idioma Bora. Instituto Lingüistico de Verano: Perú. Thiesen, Wesley and Eva Thiesen. 1998. Diccionario bora-castellano, castellano-bora. SLP 46. Lima: ILV.

Basic Vocabulary (191)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar	mïḯʔ-a	mɯɯ́ʔ-a	unknown			See Language page
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	mïʔ-tsʰi {m.d.}, mïʔ-pʰɨ {f.d.}	mɯʔ-tsʰi {m.d.}, mɯʔ-pʰɨ {f.d.}	inheritance		no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted	See Language page
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	oó	oó	inheritance		For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms	See Language page
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	ámïḯʔ-a {pl}, ámïʔ-tsʰi {m.d.}, ámïʔ-pʰɨ {f.d.}	ámɯɯ́ʔ-a {pl}, ámɯʔ-tsʰi {m.d.}, ámɯʔ-pʰɨ {f.d.}	inheritance			See Language page
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	ïḯ	ɯɯ́	inheritance			See Language page
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	aá-tʰʸe, tií-tʰʸe {pl}, aatʰʸé-tsʰi, tiitʰʸé-tsʰi {m.d.}, aatʰʸé-pʰɨ, tiitʰʸé-pʰɨ {f.d.}	aá-tʰʲɛ, tií-tʰʲɛ {pl}, aatʰʲέ-tsʰi, tiitʰʲέ-tsʰi {m.d.}, aatʰʲέ-pʰɨ, tiitʰʲέ-pʰɨ {f.d.}	unknown; inheritance			See Language page
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	he: áá-nïḯ, aá-pʸe, aá-pe, aá-ti, tií-pʸe; she: áá-mʸeé, aá-če, tií-če; it: aá-pʸe	hɛ: áá-nɯɯ́, aá-pʲɛ, aá-pɛ, aá-ti, tií-pʲɛ; shɛ: áá-mʲɛέ, aá-tʃɛ, tií-tʃɛ; it: aá-pʲɛ	inheritance			See Language page
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	caáme (T98)	kʰaáme	inheritance			See Language page
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar	tsiíñe (T98)	tsʰiíñe	unknown			See Language page
all	todo	todos	other	pʰáneére, pʰámeére	pʰánɛέrɛ, pʰámɛέrɛ	inheritance			See Language page
and	y	e	grammar						See Language page
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body	lleebóu (T98)	tʃeepóɯ	inheritance			See Language page
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body	cápihéju (T98)	kʰápʰiʔéxu	doubtful loan	Arawak		See Language page
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	pá-čiíxʸï	pá-tʃiíxʲɯ	inheritance			See Language page
at	en, a	em, a	location	tsʰatsʰíi	tsʰatsʰíi				See Language page
back	espalda	costas	body	má-ʔačï	má-ʔačɯ	unknown			See Language page
bad	mal	mal	quality	ími-tʰyḯ-ne, ímí-tʰʸḯḯ-pekʰe	ími-tʰjɯ́-nɛ, ímí-tʰʲɯ́ɯ́-pɛkʰɛ	inheritance			See Language page
bark	corteza	casca	environment	ḯméʔé ʔačḯe-mɨ́ɨ́ʔo	ɯ́mέʔέ ʔatʃɯ́ɛ-mɨ́ɨ́ʔo	inheritance			See Language page
belly	barriga	barriga	body	íʔpáï, méʔpáïḯ	íʔpáɯ, mέ-ʔpáɯɯ́	inheritance			See Language page
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location	baá (T98)	paá	inheritance			See Language page
big	grande	grande	quality	mithya-(ne), čiya-, kʰemï-	mitʰʸa-(nɛ), tʃija-, kʰɛmɯ-	inheritance			See Language page
bite	morder	morder	body	ɨʔto, tɨkḯxkʰo, tɨ́čeʔxḯkʰï	ɨʔto, tɨkɯ́xkʰo, tɨ́čɛʔxɯ́kʰɯ	inheritance; unknown			See Language page
black	negro	preto	colour	kʰɨ́ɨ́βe-ne, kʰḯḯβé-mekʰe, páxtʰïne	kʰɨ́ɨ́βɛ-nɛ, kʰɯ́ɯ́βέ-mɛkʰɛ, páxtʰɯnɛ	inheritance			See Language page
blood	sangre	sangue	body	tʰḯ-xpʰakhyo {red-liquid, 'red', ('rainbow'), 'water'}	tʰɯ́-xpʰakhjo {red-liquid, 'red' ('rainbow'), 'water')	inheritance			See Language page
blow	soplar	soprar	body	ɨpátʰsïʔxákʰo	ɨpátʰsɯʔxákʰo	inheritance			See Language page
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body	tyóóñojɨ	tjóóñojɨ	unique			See Language page
bone	hueso	osso	body	páxkʰïḯ	páxkʰɯɯ́	inheritance			See Language page
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	woman's breast: (mé)-mïxpʰánye	woman's brɛast: (mέ)-mɯxpʰánʲɛ	inheritance			See Language page
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	allíchu (T98)	atʃítʃʰɯ	unique			See Language page
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	áiiβʰétʸso	áiiβʰέtʲso	unique			See Language page
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body	dɨmájco (T98)	tɨmáxkʰo	unique			See Language page
child	niño, niña	criança	human	tsʰɨ́ɨ́-me-ne	tsʰɨ́ɨ́-mɛ-nɛ	inheritance			See Language page
climb	subir	subir	motion	nériivye, néhriba (T98)	nériiβje, néʔripa	unknown			See Language page
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment	ojtso (T98)	oxtso	unique			See Language page
cold	frío	frio	quality	tsʰ ïḯ kʰo, táɨ́ʔkʰoó	tsʰ ɯɯ́ kʰo, táɨ́ʔkʰoó	inheritance			See Language page
come	venir	vir	motion	tsʰaá, náʔxɨʔe	tsʰaá, náʔxɨʔɛ	inheritance			See Language page
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	tuú (T98)	tɯɯ́	inheritance			See Language page
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality	ímí, tʰeʔtḯxïkʰo, tsʰaímiyé	ímí, tʰɛʔtɯ́xɯkʰo, tsʰaímijέ	unknown			See Language page
count	contar	contar	mental	eéve (T98)	eéβe	inheritance			See Language page
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	taá (T98)	taá	inheritance			See Language page
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	kʷá-ʔtaʔɨ́nï, tó-iʔyánʸï (several others very similar)	kʷá-ʔtaʔɨ́nɯ, tó-iʔjánʲɯ	unknown			See Language page
day	día	dia	time	kʰóóxɨɨ́	kʰóóxɨɨ́	inheritance			See Language page
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	tsɨxɨ́-βe, aapátʰe, ɨmoxɨ́ɨ́βe, kʷáyeééβe… (several others)	tsɨxɨ́-βɛ, aapátʰɛ, ɨmoxɨ́ɨ́βɛ, kʷájɛέέβe… (several others)	inheritance			See Language page
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	tsʰeʔti, kʰanoxkʰo, kʷanóxkʰo	tsʰɛʔti, kʰanoxkʰo, kʷanóxkʰo	inheritance; unknown			See Language page
dingo/wolf			fauna						See Language page
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	iinʸḯ-βá-ne, ḯtííkʰʸïḯ, neʔni	iinʲɯ́-βá-nɛ, ɯ́tííkʰʲɯ̃ɯ, nɛʔni	inheritance	cf. 'earth'		See Language page
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	tuwa (T98)	tʰukʷa	inheritance			See Language page
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	ato, atḯkʰï, átïkʰḯnï	ato, atɯ́kʰɯ, átɯkʰɯ́nɯ	inheritance			See Language page
dry	seco	seco	quality	áraaβéne, táárɨne	áraaβέnɛ, táárɨnɛ	unique; loan	Carijona taurune		See Language page
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality	tsʰḯʔɨ́βa-tʰḯ-ne	tsʰɯ́ʔɨ́βa-tʰɯ́-nɛ				See Language page
dust	polvo	poeira	environment	pʰá-čixʸï	pʰá-tʃixʲɯ	inheritance			See Language page
ear	oreja	orelha	body	nïïmɨʔo	nɯɯmɨʔo	inheritance			See Language page
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	íínʸï-xɨ	íínʲɯ-xɨ	inheritance			See Language page
eat	comer	comer	body	toó {meat}, čeéne {fruit}, maxčʰo	toó {meat}, tʃɛέnɛ {fruit}, maxtʃʰo	inheritance			See Language page
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	ííʔyḯï(ḯ)	ííʔjɯ́ɯ(ɯ́)	inheritance			See Language page
eye	ojo	olho	body	(me)-ʔáčïï	(mɛ)-ʔátʃɯɯ	inheritance			See Language page
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body	name (T98)	name	loan (into protolg?), direction unknown	Witotoan		See Language page
fall	caer	cair	motion	aakʰítʰʸe	aakʰítʰʲɛ	inheritance			See Language page
far	lejos	longe	quality	tsʰíʔyïče, kʰémïéče	tsʰíʔjɯtʃɛ, kʰέmɯέtʃɛ	inheritance	cf. Aschmann		See Language page
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	tḯḯrïpa	tɯ́ɯ́rɯpa	inheritance			See Language page
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	čiʔí-yo, čiʔí-ï	tʃiʔí-jo, tʃiʔí-ɯ	inheritance			See Language page
fear	miedo	medo	mental	iči, ičí-tʰʸe, nïʔnéβe, ápʰiičʰóče, áápimʸéi, ámɨtsʰáraʔkʰóče, nóïʔkʰóče	iči, ičí-tʰʲɛ, nɯʔnέβɛ, ápʰiičʰóčɛ, áápimʲέi, ámɨtsʰáraʔkʰóčɛ, nóɯʔkʰóčɛ	inheritance			See Language page
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	ɨ́ʔxɨ́-xɨɨ́, ɨ́ʔxɨ-xɨ, ɨ́ʔxɨ-ne	ɨ́ʔxɨ́-xɨɨ́, ɨ́ʔxɨ-xɨ, ɨ́ʔxɨ-nɛ	inheritance			See Language page
fingernail	uña	unha	body	(mé)-ʔóxtsʰɨ́-kwa-mɨ́ɨ́ʔo	(mέ)-ʔóxtsʰɨ́-kwa-mɨ́ɨ́ʔo	inheritance			See Language page
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	kʰḯḯxï-kwa	kʰɯ́ɯ́xɯ-kwa	inheritance			See Language page
flow	fluir	fluir	motion	kʷaápe	kʷaápɛ	unknown			See Language page
flower	flor	flor	environment	kʷaxkʰo	kʷaxkʰo	unique			See Language page
fly	volar	voar	motion	kʷaaméne, kʷaʔpʰe	kʷaamέnɛ, kʷaʔpʰɛ	inheritance			See Language page
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment	oxtsʰó-tḯ	oxtsʰó-tɯ́				See Language page
foot	pie	pé	body	(mé)-xtʰḯʔaá	(mέ)-xtʰɯ́ʔaá	inheritance			See Language page
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	čeéne, imʸéxï, néeβa, neeβa-pa	čɛέnɛ, imʲέxɯ, nέɛβa, nɛɛβa-pa	unique			See Language page
good	bueno	bom	quality	imí-kwï, ɨ́mɨáá-ne, ɨ́mɨáá-pé	imí-kwɯ, , ɨ́mɨáá-nɛ, ɨ́mɨáá-pέ	inheritance			See Language page
green	verde	verde	quality	axthyḯβa, axthyḯβá-ne	axthjɯ́βa, axthjɯ́βá-nɛ	inheritance			See Language page
grow	crecer	crescer	state	piívye (T98)	pʰiíβje	unique			See Language page
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	nííkwa-kʰo	nííkwa-kʰo	inheritance			See Language page
hand	mano	mão	body	(mé)-ʔóxtsʰɨɨ́	(mέ)-ʔóxtsʰɨɨ́	inheritance			See Language page
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	nííkwaï	nííkwaɯ	inheritance			See Language page
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	čeépo, čínʸémïḯ-kʰïnï, nḯʔéxïḯ-kʰïnï, βɨááβe	tʃɛέpo, tʃínʸέmɯɯ́-kʰɯnɯ, nɯ́ʔέxɯɯ́-kʰɯnɯ, βɨááβɛ	inheritance			See Language page
heart	corazón	coração	body	(mé)-ɨ́ɨ́pïï	(mέ)-ɨ́ɨ́pɯɯ	inheritance			See Language page
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	pʰátïïkʰḯ-ne	pʰátɯɯkʰɯ́nɛ	inheritance			See Language page
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	paatánu (T98)	pʰaatʰánɯ	inheritance			See Language page
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	íčaáyo	íčaájo	inheritance			See Language page
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	ixkʰʸa (exist), kʰátʰóroʔxákʰo, tʰeʔme, maxčʰótsʰo (feed)	ixkʰʲa (ɛxist), kʰátʰóroʔxákʰo, tʰɛʔmɛ, maxčʰótsʰo (fɛɛd)	inheritance			See Language page
hot	caliente	quente	quality	ačóókʰo, áčookʰó-né	atʃóókʰo, átʃookʰó-nέ	inheritance			See Language page
how?	como	como	grammar	mïʔtï	mɯʔtɯ	inheritance			See Language page
if	si	se	grammar	-ʔaxčʰííxʸï, -kʰa	-ʔaxtʃʰííxʲɯ, -kʰa				See Language page
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	pañe, -tu (T98)	pañe, -tɯ (T98)	inheritance			See Language page
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	iʔpaḯ, méʔpáïḯ	iʔpaɯ́, mέʔpáɯɯ́	inheritance			See Language page
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body	ajɨ (T98)	axɨ				See Language page
kill	matar	matar	impact	tsɨ́xɨ-βé-tsʰo, čiiʔyánï, ápʰaxʸḯnï, kʷátsʰïʔkʰáo	tsɨ́xɨ-βέ-tsʰo, tʃiiʔjánɯ, ápʰaxʲɯ́nɯ, kʷátsʰɯʔkʰáo	inheritance; unknown			See Language page
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	kʷaaxákʰï	kʷaaxákʰɯ	inheritance			See Language page
lake	lago	lago	environment	ḯneï	ɯ́nɛɯ	doubtful loan	Witoto; prob. loan into Resigaro		See Language page
laugh	reír	rir	mental	goóco (T98)	koókʰo	unique			See Language page
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	ɨ́na-ʔáámɨ, -ʔáámɨɨ́, ḯna-ʔáámɨ, -xḯḯʔoó, mɨ́ɨ́ïmï, xɨ́ʔoó	ɨ́na-ʔáámɨ, -ʔáámɨɨ́, ɯ́na-ʔáámɨ, -xɯ́ɯ́ʔoó, mɨ́ɨ́ɯmɯ, xɨ́ʔoó	inheritance			See Language page
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	náni-nʸéxkʰï	náni-nʸέxkʰɯ	inheritance			See Language page
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	(mé)-tʰáxkʰii	(mέ)-tʰáxkʰii	unique			See Language page
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	todsɨ́ɨ́ve, ówaúúve (T98)	tʰotsɨ́ɨ́βe, ókʷaɯ́ɯ́βe	loan, direction unknown; doubtful loan	Ocaina; Arawak kua		See Language page
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	roríʔkʰʸo	roríʔkʰʲo	unique			See Language page
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body	ijcya (T98)	ixkʰja	inheritance			See Language page
liver	hígado	figado	body	íʔkwá-neé, mé-ʔkʷá-neé, -kʷá-neé(-ne)	íʔkwá-nɛέ, mέ-ʔkʷá-nɛέ, -kʷá-nɛέ(-nɛ)	inheritance			See Language page
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	cámé (T98)	kʰámé	inheritance			See Language page
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	kwáániʔyo, kʷaʔtʰʸéxɨ	kwáániʔjo, kʷaʔtʰjέxɨ	inheritance		order Phtiraptera	See Language page
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	βaʔβákʷa, βaxɨ́ʔkʰo, maráʔpa, marááʔo	βaʔβákʷa, βaxɨ́ʔkʰo, maráʔpa, marááʔo	inheritance	prob. loan into Ocaina, Resigaro		See Language page
man/male	hombre	homem	human	kwa-xphi, mɨ́amḯnáa-xpʰi {being-male}	kwa-xphi, mɨ́amɯ́náa-xpʰi {being-male}	inheritance			See Language page
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	ʔéékʰoó, toó, tʰá-tyo {'my flesh'}	ʔέέkʰoó, toó, tʰá-tʲjo {'my flesh'}	doubtful loan (into protolanguage?), direction unknown	Murui/Minica Witoto		See Language page
moon	luna	lua	environment	nïʔ-pa pʰéxkʰó-expʰi	nɯʔ-pa pʰέxkʰó-ɛxpʰi	inheritance			See Language page
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	kwaʔá-ro, kʷaʔá-ï	kwaʔá-ro, kʷaʔá-ɯ	inheritance			See Language page
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	kʰáme-kʷáxï, kʷáxïḯ, páïḯ, pʰá-kʷaxï, pʰá-ʔpaï}	kʰámɛ-kʷáxɯ, kʷáxɯɯ́, páɯɯ́, pʰá-kʷaxɯ, pʰá-ʔpaɯ	inheritance; inheritance			See Language page
mouth	boca	boca	body	íʔxyïḯ, ámexï	íʔxjɯɯ́, ámɛxɯ	inheritance			See Language page
name	nombre	nome	human	meme	mɛmɛ	loan into protolanguage, direction unknown	Boran, Witotoan, Tukanoan		See Language page
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body	métookéu (T98)	métookéɯ				See Language page
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	pɨɨ́hɨ, pɨɨ́hɨre (T98)	pɨɨ́ʔɨ, pɨɨ́ʔɨre	inheritance			See Language page
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	(mé)-kʰéxtʰïʔi	(mέ)-kʰέxtʰɯʔi	inheritance			See Language page
new	nuevo	novo	quality	péʔne	pέʔnɛ	inheritance			See Language page
night	noche	noite	time	pʰexkʰo	pʰɛxkʰo	inheritance			See Language page
no/not	no	não	grammar	tsá (T98)	tsá	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Jivaroan		See Language page
nose	nariz	nariz	body	tʰḯxï-ʔo, tʰḯḯ-ʔexï {nose-hole}	tʰɯ́xɯ-ʔo, tʰɯ́ɯ́-ʔɛxɯ {nose-hole}	inheritance			See Language page
old	viejo	velho	quality	tsʰḯḯkʰáane, kʰeéme	tsʰɯɯ́ɯ́kʰáanɛ, kʰɛέmɛ	inheritance			See Language page
one	uno	um	number	tsʰa-	tsʰa-	doubtful loan (into protolanguage?), direction unknown	Witotoan		See Language page
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	paayúcu, wájɨhtúcu (T98)	pʰaajɯ́kɯ, kʷáxɨʔtʰɯ́kɯ	inheritance			See Language page
other	otro	outro	grammar	tsɨ́-, tsi- (T98)	tsɨ́-, tsi-	inheritance			See Language page
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body	chémé (T98)	tʃémé	unique			See Language page
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	mɨ́amḯnaa, mḯnaa {people}	mɨ́amɯ́naa, mɯ́naa {people}	inheritance			See Language page
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	wápaájco, íllaáyo, wádɨrɨhjáco (beat with stick) (T98)	kʷápʰaáxkʰo, ítʃaájo, kʷátɨrɨʔxákʰo				See Language page
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	nííxʸa-pa	nííxʲa-pa	inheritance			See Language page
red	rojo	vermelho	colour		thɯ́xpha-njɛ	inheritance			See Language page
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body	ɨ́mɨá-néxkʰï	ɨ́mɨá-nέxkʰɯ	inheritance			See Language page
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	xïḯβa	xɯɯ́βa	inheritance			See Language page
root	raíz	raiz	flora	páxkʰyeé	páxkʰjɛέ	inheritance			See Language page
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	tʰóókʰï-ne, rááráá, čʰáxaaβé-né	tʰóókʰɯ-nɛ, rááráá, čʰáxaaβέ-nέ	inheritance			See Language page
sand	arena	areia	environment	nékwa-yḯḯ-ʔa, néékʷa-yï {sing}	nέkwa-jɯ́ɯ́-ʔa, nέέkʷa-jɯ {sing}	unique			See Language page
say	decir	dizer	mental	neé (T98)	neé	inheritance			See Language page
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact	dójórɨúcu (T98)	tóxórɨɯkʰɯ	unique			See Language page
see	ver	ver	mental	axthyḯmɨ, tḯxïḯ-kʰïnï, ïḯxe	axthjɯ́mɨ, tɯ́xɯɯ́-kʰɯnɯ, ɯɯ́xɛ	inheritance			See Language page
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	tsʰḯʔxɨβá-ne	tsʰɯ́ʔxɨβá-nɛ	inheritance			See Language page
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	neebótso, tábúniáco (T98)	neepótsʰo, tʰápúniákʰo	unknown			See Language page
short	corto	curto	quality	páʔrí-nʸeḯβḯ	páʔrí-nʲɛɯ́βɯ́	inheritance			See Language page
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	mé-ḯxɨ-pa	mέ-ɯ́xɨ-pa	inheritance			See Language page
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental	núcójpɨ́tsó (T98)	núcóxpɨ́tsó	inheritance			See Language page
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	ácuu-	ákʰɯɯ-	inheritance			See Language page
skin	piel	pele	body	(mé)-ʔmɨ́ɨ́ʔeé, iáápe mɨ́ɨʔe	(mέ)-ʔmɨ́ɨ́ʔɛέ, iáápɛ mɨ́ɨʔɛ	inheritance			See Language page
sky	cielo	céu	environment	níxkʰʸe-xɨ, íéβeʔóókʷa	níxkʰʲɛ-xɨ, íέβɛʔóókʷa	inheritance			See Language page
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	kʰïkʷa	kʰɯkʷa	inheritance			See Language page
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	nʸomɨ, aya, áyá-né-kʷï, ïʔxéné-kʷï, čʰoʔxï, ḯḯkḯyïï	nʲomɨ, aja, ájá-nέ-kʷɯ, ɯʔxέnέ-kʷɯ, tʃʰoʔxɯ, ɯ́ɯ́kɯ́jɯɯ	inheritance			See Language page
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	oxtsʰo	oxtsʰo	unique			See Language page
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	árahjúcu (trans), cuva (intrans) (T98)	áraʔxɯ́kɯ́ (trans), kʰɯβa (intrans)	unknown		primarily transitive	See Language page
spit	escupir	cuspir	body	ɨ́rípɨáco (trans), uni (intrans)	ɨ́ripʰɨákʰo (trans), ɯni (intrans)	inheritance			See Language page
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	dówajcáro (T98)	tókʷaxkʰáro	doubtful loan	Arawak		See Language page
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	aámï	aámɯ	inheritance			See Language page
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact	kʰápʰátʰʸïḯkʰï-nï (sprout), kʷáʔexḯro	kʰápʰátʰʲɯɯ́kʰɯ-nɯ (sprout), kʷáʔɛxɯ́ro	inheritance			See Language page
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	íxʸokʰḯḯβe, kʷaaméne, kʷámenéʔkʰï, kʷámenééβe	íxʲokʰɯ́ɯ́βɛ, kʷaamέnɛ, kʷámɛnέʔkʰɯ, kʷámɛnέέβɛ	unique			See Language page
star	estrella	estrela	environment	mɨ́ɨ́kʰḯrï-kwa, mɨ́ɨkʰïrï	mɨ́ɨ́kʰɯ́rɯ-kwa, mɨ́ɨkʰɯrɯ	inheritance			See Language page
steal	robar	roubar	other	nani (T98)	nani	inheritance			See Language page
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	ḯméʔe-i(tree?), ḯméʔe-kʰo, ḯmé-ne-pa	ɯ́mέʔɛ-i(trɛɛ?), ɯ́mέʔɛ-kʰo, ɯ́mέ-nɛ-pa	inheritance			See Language page
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	néékʷa-yï, néékʷá-nʸeï	nέέkʷa-jï, nέɛnέέkʷa-jï, nέέkʷá-nʸɛïkʷá-nʲɛɯ	inheritance			See Language page
suck	chupar	chupar	body	nʸoʔ-nʸo, nʸoíʔ-kʰʸ (milk), pʰɨ́ʔxa (caramels), ɨɨ́ʔa, tsʰɨɨ́ʔi (the juice out of somethin) tsʰoóʔkʰo (something dry into mouth)	nʲoʔ-nʲo, nʲoíʔ-kʰʲ (milk), pʰɨ́ʔxa (caramels), ɨɨ́ʔa, tsʰɨɨ́ʔi (the juice out of somethin) tsʰoóʔkʰo (something dry into mouth)	unknown			See Language page
sun	sol	sol	time	nïʔ-pa (kʰóóxɨ́-expʰi)	nɯʔ-pa (kʰóóxɨ́-ɛxpʰi)	inheritance			See Language page
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body	towa (T98)	tʰokʷa	inheritance			See Language page
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	oóri, kʷaaméne, ɨ́patsʰḯḯβe	oóri, kʷaamέnɛ, ɨ́patsʰɯ́ɯ́βɛ	loan (into protolg?), direction unknown; unknown	Witotoan		See Language page
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	ixčʰi	ixtʃʰi	inheritance			See Language page
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	pókʷaá, kwakwááβye	pókʷaá, kwakwááβjɛ	unique; unique			See Language page
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar	(tʰ)-eé-ne, (tʰ)-eé-xa, (tʰ)-eé-kʷa, tiípʸe, áánïḯ	(tʰ)-ɛέ-nɛ, (tʰ)-ɛέ-xa, (tʰ)-ɛέ-kʷa, tiípʲɛ, áánɯɯ́	unique			See Language page
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	pʰɨɨ́mɨ	pʰɨɨ́mɨ	inheritance			See Language page
thin	delgado	fino	quality	ani, ïxtsʰ	ani, ɯxtsʰ	inheritance			See Language page
think	pensar	pensar	mental	ɨ́xtsʰaméi, ɨ́xtsʰḯ-kʰïnï, ɨ́xtsʰo	ɨ́xtsʰamέi, ɨ́xtsʰɯ́-kʰɯnɯ, ɨ́xtsʰo	inheritance			See Language page
this	este/esta	este	grammar	ínyeé, áánïḯ, áámʸeé, eéne	ínjɛέ, áánɯɯ́, áámʲɛέ, ɛέnɛ	unknown			See Language page
three	tres	tres	number	pʰápʰiʔčʰḯï (lit. 'algo montado')	pʰápʰiʔtʃɯ́ɯ	unique			See Language page
throat	garganta	garganta	body	mémehdóu (T98)	mémeʔdóɯ	unique			See Language page
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	aámu, tubo (T98)	aámɯ, tʰɯpo	unique; unique			See Language page
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	čʰixčʰi, taʔnáʔo	tʃʰixtʃʰi, taʔnáʔo	inheritance			See Language page
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	čʰíxčï, toʔxɨ́nï	tʃʰíxtʃɯ, toʔxɨ́nɯ	inheritance; inheritance			See Language page
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	nɨ́ɨ́xɨ-kwa, mé-ʔnɨ́xɨ-kwa	nɨ́ɨ́xɨ-kwa, mέ-ʔnɨ́xɨ-kwa	inheritance			See Language page
tooth	diente	dente	body	íʔkwáxɨɨ́, mé-ʔkʷáxɨɨ́, íʔ-kʷá-nyeé	íʔkwáxɨɨ́, mέ-ʔkʷáxɨɨ́, íʔ-kʷá-nʲɛέ	inheritance			See Language page
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other	vihyo (T98)	βiʔjo	inheritance		may be transitive or intransitive	See Language page
two	dos	dois	number	mínyéékʰïḯ; mi- + classifier (T98)	mínjέέkʰ ɯɯ́	inheritance			See Language page
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	íllímútuhjáco (T98)	ítʃímɯ́tʰuʔxákʰo	inheritance?			See Language page
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	ulle (T98)	ɯtʃe	inheritance			See Language page
water	agua	agua	environment	nḯ-xphakhyo	nɯ́-xphakhjo	inheritance			See Language page
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	mïrííβye, maxááβe, reʔre, ïḯrï	mɯrííβjɛ, maxááβɛ, rɛʔrɛ, ɯɯ́rɯ	unknown			See Language page
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	ɨɨná	ɨɨná	unknown			See Language page
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	-kʰookʰa, mḯixʸḯʔxáa	-kʰookʰa, mɯ́ixʲɯ́ʔxáa	inheritance			See Language page
where?	donde	onde	grammar	kʰía, mḯtsʰií, tsʰátsʰii, kʰétsʰií	kʰía, mɯ́tsʰií, tsʰátsʰii, kʰέtsʰií	unknown			See Language page
white	blanco	branco	colour	tsʰɨ́sʰɨɨ-ne, tsʰɨtsʰɨ	tsʰɨ́sʰɨɨ-nɛ, tsʰɨtsʰɨ	inheritance			See Language page
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	mḯʔa, mḯʔa-xa, kʰaathʸéʔa-(xa)	mɯ́ʔa, mɯ́ʔa-xa, kʰaathʲέʔa-(xa)	unknown			See Language page
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	tʰaápa, mekʷa, áthyáápaá	tʰaápa, mɛkʷa, áthjáápaá	inheritance			See Language page
wind	viento	vento	environment	kʰííxʸ-pa, (x)ióxkʰo	kʰííxʲ-pa, (x)ióxkʰo	inheritance			See Language page
wing	ala	asa	body	nḯkʷaá	nɯ́kʷaá	unknown			See Language page
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	kwa-ĉe	kwa-tʃɛ	inheritance			See Language page
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	wákimyéi (T98)	kʷákʰimjéi	unique			See Language page
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body	áwacúnu (T98)	ákʷakʰúnu	doubtful loan	Witotoan		See Language page
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	čí-xkʰyá-ne-ḯβḯ	tʃí-xkʰjá-nɛ-ɯ́βɯ́	inheritance			See Language page


1pl.excl
1pl.incl
1sg
2pl
2sg
3pl
3sg
above
again
all
and
ankle
armpit
ash
at
back
bad
bark
belly
below
big
bite
black
blood
blow
boil/pimple
bone
breast
breathe
burn
chew
child
climb
cloud
cold
come
cook
correct/true
count
cry
cut/hack
day
die/be dead
dig
dingo/wolf
dirty
dream
drink
dry
dull/blunt
dust
ear
earth/soil
eat
egg
eye
faeces
fall
far
fat/grease
father
fear
feather
fingernail
fire
flow
flower
fly
fog
foot
fruit
good
green
grow
hair (of head)
hand
head
hear
heart
heavy
hide
hit
hold
hot
how?
if
in/inside
intestines
itch
kill
know/be knowledgeable
lake
laugh
leaf
left/left hand
leg/foot
lie down
lightning
live/be alive
liver
long
louse
lung
man/male
meat/flesh
moon
mother
mountain/hill
mouth
name
nape
near/close
neck
new
night
no/not
nose
old
one
open/uncover
other
pain/painful/sick
person/human being
pound/beat
rain
red
right/right hand
road/path
root
rotten
sand
say
scratch
see
sharp
shoot
short
shoulder
shy/ashamed
sit
skin
sky
sleep
small
smoke
sniff/smell
spit
split
squeeze
stab/pierce
stand
star
steal
stick/wood
stone
suck
sun
sweat
swell
swim
tail
that
thick
thin
think
this
three
throat
throw
thunder
tie up/fasten
tongue
tooth
turn
two
vomit
walk
water
wet
what?
when?
where?
white
who?
wife
wind
wing
woman/female
work
yawn
yellow

Showing 1 to 191 of 191 entries

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (133)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Source	Distribution	General Notes
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana	néépapa	nέέpapa		inheritance	but cf. Witotoan		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	shrub
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	pɨrḯmïxɨ {añuje}; bute (R95), bɨɨrúmujɨ (FS)	pɨrɯ́mɯxɨ {aɲuje}		unique			See Language page
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	niʔpa, meʔtópa (H&R92)	niʔpa, meʔtópa (H&R92)		inheritance			See Language page	Throughout Amazonia	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis	ámánaá (T98)	ámánaá (T98)		loan (into protolg?), direction unknown - WW			See Language page	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia	baáco (T98)	baákʰo		inheritance			See Language page	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	a tree; not a true grape
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes	ííkwakhyo, póóaá	ííkwakhjo, póóaá		doubtful loan	Carijona ikoi-mǝ (snake-Augm)		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	maaháne (FS)	maaʔáne		unknown			See Language page
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae	generic ant: pʰíímyepa	generic ant: pʰíímjɛpa					See Language page
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)	ɨɨ́xï, tʰoʔxɨ	ɨɨ́xɯ, tʰoʔxɨ		inheritance			See Language page	Widespread Amazonian lowlands
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	čeéï, tóótʰoḯʔaamɨ́ne, kʰáápʰɨ́naï (small sp.)	tʃɛέɯ, tóótʰoɯ́ʔaamɨ́nɛ, kʰáápʰɨ́naɯ (small sp.)		inheritance	č~g correspondence, but looks a bit like Arawak forms		See Language page	Widespread in Amazonia
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum	néépʰáxʸï-xɨ	nέέpʰáxʲɯ-xɨ					See Language page	tropical regions, especially river banks	plant
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana	coóju (T98)	kʰoóxɯ					See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.	tóllií + clas, e.g. tóóllíuu (fruit), tóóllíujɨ (tree) (T98)	tʰóótʃí		inheritance	loan into Resigaro		See Language page	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.	ujɨ; [types: wáátsɨtrɨ, tséédaco, íñahámuco, naméco, bajɨ́muco, bellááco, daallícyo] (T98), ɯxɨ, ɯ́xɨʔo (H&R92)	uhɨ		unknown	same as maize; may be shift from 'bastard plantain'		See Language page		Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.	kʰíkʰiíxye, kikiíye (FS)	kʰíkʰiíxjɛ		inheritance			See Language page
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.	pooróto (T98)	pʰorótʰo		loan	Quechua (via Spanish?)		See Language page		plant
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		wahpéébe (T98)	kʷaʔpʰéépe		unique			See Language page
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala	dohjɨ́co (T98)	toʔxɨkʰo					See Language page	secondary forests, native to Brazil	tree
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba				missing			See Language page	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	éétʰepa, tsʰïïʔéï, naʔpa	έέtʰɛpa, tsʰïïʔέï, naʔpa		unknown; loan, direction unknown	éétʰepa: loan into Resigaro; tsʰïïʔé shared Andoke		See Language page
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae	téétéjɨ, bóóa (FS)	tʰéétʰéxɨ, póóa		doubtful loan, direction unknown	Ticuna tututʃí		See Language page
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	tehke (tree calabash) (T98)	teʔkʰe (tree calabash)		inheritance			See Language page	indigenous gardens	plant; tree
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']							See Language page	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	tree
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha	cuúmu (T98)	kʰɯɯ́mɯ		inheritance			See Language page
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata	túúpámy- (T98)	tʰɯ́ɯ́pʰámj-		inheritance			See Language page
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	doodóba, turáácajɨ (T98)	tootóba, tʰuráákʰaxɨ		inheritance	loan into Witoto; possibly Achagua?		See Language page
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris	oʔpa	oʔpa		unknown	loan into Resigaro		See Language page
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.	cáátuú (=jenipap)	kʰáátʰɯɯ́ (=jenipap)		semantic shift?	also means 'jenipap'		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	plant
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum	áñaájɨ	áɲaáhɨ		loan, direction unknown	shared Ocaina, Resigaro, Bora		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda	éihyéba, cahtsówa (species; others also exist) (T98)	éiʔjépa, kʰaʔtsʰókwa					See Language page
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea	chiihyéco (T98)	tʃiiʔjékʰo		doubtful loan (into protolg?) - WW	onomatopoeic		See Language page
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.	móóhou (T98) 'vine'	móóʔoɯ					See Language page	secondary forest, floodplain	vine
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca	íípií [WW?]	íípií		loan, direction unknown - WW	%hibie		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	plant
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria	tooró-	tʰooro-		inheritance			See Language page
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu	meéni	mɛέni		doubtful loan (into protolg?), direction unknown	Witoto mɛru		See Language page
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua	ihlle (FS)	iʔtʃe		unique			See Language page
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)	aʔti	aʔti		loan, direction unknown	Witotoan; prob original meaning kapok		See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura	nehwáyu	neʔkwáju		inheritance			See Language page
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae	tseéreého (T98)	tsʰeéreéʔo		inheritance			See Language page
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.	miíjyo (FS)	miíxjo		doubtful loan	Jivaroan maʃu		See Language page	Amazonia
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	nííβï-kʷa, iípa	nííβɯ-kʷa, iípa		inheritance			See Language page
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	ooʔíípʸe {= jaguar}	ooʔíípʲɛ {= jaguar}		semantic shift	from jaguar		See Language page	Not native; widespread
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis	úúníjyaba, tsoowáu (FS)	ɯ́ɯ́níxjapa, tsʰookwáɯ					See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae	ɨ́juúu (FS)	ɨ́xɯɯ́ɯ (FS)		inheritance			See Language page
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family	nɨɨ́jɨ, wáhtsajɨ (T98)	nɨɨ́xɨ, kwáʔtsʰaxɨ		loan	Witoto		See Language page
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.	ajpa (T98)	axpa		inheritance			See Language page
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus	baaráwa (T98)	paarákwa		loan	Tupi-Guarani purake		See Language page
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae	námoóca	námoókʰa		inheritance			See Language page
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		amóópe	amóópɛ		unknown	possibly Resigaro loan, but probable B > R		See Language page
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.	mújcuri (T98)	mɯ́xkʰɯri		unique			See Language page	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	shrub/tree
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	ḯḯkʰo-kʷa, ïḯkʰo {pl}	ɯ́ɯ́kʰo-kʷa, ɯɯ́kʰon {pl}		inheritance			See Language page
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana	cáátuú (T98) (=Dioscorea)	kʰáátʰɯɯ́ (=Dioscorea)		inheritance			See Language page	widespread lowland SA	shrub
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis							See Language page
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)	pɨɨ́βa, tsʰóxkʰómïxɨ	pɨɨ́βa, tsʰóxkʰómïxɨ		inheritance			See Language page
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans	déénehe (T98)	tééneʔe		unknown	loan into Resigaro		See Language page	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba	ihchúba (FS)	iʔtʃʰúpa (FS)		inheritance			See Language page	Widespread South America
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti	úúcume (FS)	ɯ́ɯ́kʰɯme		inheritance			See Language page
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.	pʰɨ́ɨ́kʰaxɨ	pʰɨ́ɨ́kʰaxɨ		inheritance			See Language page	Different types have different localized ranges
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola							See Language page
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi	népaxkʰe	nέpaxkʰɛ		unique			See Language page	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	vine
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae	méwaájɨ (generic) (T98)	mékwaáxɨ		unique			See Language page
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	íímḯʔóexpʰi, téʔtsʰipa	íímɯ́ʔóɛxpʰi, tέʔtsʰipa		unique			See Language page
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus	ɨɨ́ju (T98) (also = anteater; mule)	ɨɨ́xu (also = anteater; mule)					See Language page
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens	tɨɨ́	tɨɨ́		inheritance			See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	plant
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]	name (T98)	namɛ		unknown			See Language page
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	pʰáápɨʔo	pʰáápɨʔo		inheritance			See Language page	Widespread
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.	máányaʔo, mááñaho (FS)	máánjaʔo		doubtful loan, direction unknown - WW	%maɲaʔo		See Language page		iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.	tuútsi, ahrójɨ (T98)	tʰɯɯ́tsʰi, aʔróxɨ		inheritance			See Language page	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic							See Language page
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	ooʔíípʸe, tʰḯḯpʰáʔyoóï {=dog}; ookó (R95)	ooʔíípʲɛ, tʰɯ́ɯ́pʰáʔjoóɯ, ookʰó		unique; loan, direction unknown	shared Witotoan, Muinane		See Language page
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura							See Language page		large tree
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra	áhdicyo (T98)	áʔtikʰjo					See Language page	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	tree
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae	taáho (FS)	taáʔo (FS)		inheritance			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.	ííhyuje (T98)	ííʔjuxe		inheritance			See Language page
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.	ɨ́ɨ́βaá, ínyaʔa	ɨ́ɨ́βaá, ínjaʔa		inheritance			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	ïxɨ {kernel}, ḯxɨ-ï {ear}, ḯxɨ-ʔo {plant}, ïxɨ-ʔe	ɯxɨ {kernel}, ɯ́xɨ-ɯ {ear}, ɯ́xɨ-ʔo {plant}, ɯxɨ-ʔe		semantic shift?	same as banana, as in Tukanoan and Hup		See Language page	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	plant
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.							See Language page
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.	ánou (T98)	ánoɯ					See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	paaxḯri-, pʰɨ́ɨ́kʰa	paaxɯ́ri-, pʰɨ́ɨ́kʰa		inheritance			See Language page	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	pʰákʰʸoómï	pʰákʰʲoómɯ		inheritance			See Language page	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa	iñe +clas, e.g. íñehe (aguaje tree); íñehe (aguaje fruit) (T98)	iñe		inheritance			See Language page	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	trunks contain sago-like starch
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	kʷaá-xʸï, kʷá-mʸḯḯ	kʷaá-xʸï, kʷá-mʸḯḯ		inheritance			See Language page
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera							See Language page
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus	kʰïïβépa, čiʔphye, óhdaco (FS)	kʰɯɯβέpa, tʃiʔphjɛ, óhdaco (FS)		inheritance; loan, direction unknown	Ocaina tsóraaxo; cf. Resigaro tjúukó		See Language page
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)	koʔkóxɨ	koʔkóxɨ		unknown			See Language page		prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis	tsʰoxkʰo, tsojco (FS)	tsʰoxkʰo		inheritance			See Language page
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae	óówaá, áájaba (T98)	óókwaá, ááxaba		inheritance			See Language page
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes	pʰéétsʰoó, pʰeʔtsʰókʰo, póxpoó, pʰïpʰḯxkʰopa	pʰέέtsʰoó, pʰɛʔtsʰókʰo, póxpoó, pʰɯpʰɯ́xkʰopa		unique; doubtful loan - WW	%pupu		See Language page	Widespread
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)	tʰaxkʰï, anʸóxkʰóʔekʷa, tajcu (FS)	tʰaxkʰɯ, anʲóxkʰóʔekʷa		inheritance			See Language page
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.	wajcyo (T98)	kwaxkjo					See Language page
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana	ajɨ (T98)	axɨ					See Language page	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	palm
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica	čoóra, piíʔyo, pʰiʔtʰʸói, tʰárápoï	tʃoóra, piíʔjo, pʰiʔtʰʲói, tʰárápoɯ		loan, direction unknown; unique	Ocaina; possibly from loro		See Language page	Widespread
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea	aálla (T98)	aátʃa		unknown	loan into Resigaro		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes	meéme	meéme	pijuayo	inheritance		mééméuwa 'species of red butterfly' (Thiesen p.180) - but seems likely that this is built on peach-palm rather than the reverse	Thiesen 1998: 180
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea							See Language page		plant
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus	culli- +class	kʰɯtʃi		loan (into protolanguage?), direction unknown - WW	%koritʃa: Ashuar kuwíʃ, Matses kantʃi, Boran kidʒa, Candoshi koriʃa		See Language page		plant
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae	níjtyajɨ (T98)	níxtjaxɨ		inheritance			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae	niijyáu (FS)	niixjáu		unique			See Language page
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum							See Language page	secondary scrub vegetation	compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	cuni- (+clas)	kʰɯni- (+clas)		semantic shift?	from Xanthosoma		See Language page		plant
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae	tóménɨ́hjowan(T98)	tʰóménɨ́ʔxokwan					See Language page
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.	máákiñi (T98)	máákʰiñi					See Language page	Widespread Amazonia	tree
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones	óóvɨho (T98)	óóβɨʔo		inheritance			See Language page
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua	coómɨ (T98)	kʰoómɨ					See Language page	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia	may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.	adólli, piiyálli (FS)	atótʃi, pʰiijátʃi					See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata	tsógooróho (FS), tsóβɨráko (Seifart2011)			doubtful loan	possibly Carib/Carijona (see WaiWai šukurwa); see also Koreguaje thoʔoroo, Siona		See Language page
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda	ḯtsʰïkʰo	ɯ́tsʰïkʰo		inheritance			See Language page
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		íínyimye	íínjimjɛ		inheritance			See Language page
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox	rattlesnake: tʰáákʰaʔe	rattlesnake: tʰáákʰaʔɛ					See Language page	Widespread South America
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.							See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae	pʰaakwá-, toʔkʷá-xɨ	pʰaakwá-, toʔkʷá-xɨ		inheritance			See Language page
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.	doóto	toótʰo		loan into protolanguage, direction unknown	Candoshi; cognate in Muinane (meaning unclear)		See Language page		plant
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae	néépi- (T98)	néépʰi-		loan, direction unknown	Witoto (Murui)		See Language page
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.	bajɨ	baxɨ		inheritance			See Language page
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.	kʰïni, kʰḯnií-ï	kʰɯni, kʰɯ́nií-ɯ					See Language page
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	ókʰáxií, kʰáátʰïxé ɨʔtéexpʰi, pḯḯréenííʔyo, kʰïïβépa, ócájií (FS)	ókʰáxií, kʰáátʰɯxέ ɨʔtέɛxpʰi, pɯ́ɯ́rέɛnííʔjo, kʰɯɯβέpa		unique			See Language page
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera	tʰákʰíʔkʰi-pa, máʔarḯmïḯ-pe, mooá-pa	tʰákʰíʔkʰi-pa, máʔarɯ́mɯɯ́-pe, mooá-pa		unknown; inheritance			See Language page
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea	dsɨ́ɨ́dsɨjɨ, llehdójɨ (T98)	tsɨ́ɨ́tsɨxɨ, tʃeʔtóxɨ		unknown			See Language page
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.							See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae	ááwáá (FS)	áákʷáá (FS)		doubtful loan	Tukanoan; e.g. Tanimuka ã'kaka		See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	aʔkʰókwa, βḯḯríʔií, mïʔmɨ́pa, muhchíba (FS)	aʔkʰókwa, βɯ́ɯ́ríʔií, mɯʔmɨ́pa		inheritance			See Language page
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum	panʸe	panʲɛ		inheritance			See Language page		plant
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	iíβo, cúúmujɨ (all sp.; no generic?)	iíβo, kɯ́ɯ́mɯxɨ		inheritance			See Language page	Widespread
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.	nïče, tʰóʔrokʷa, rííoó, perííʔyo	nɯtʃɛ, tʰóʔrokʷa, rííoó, pɛrííʔjo		inheritance			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		ḯme-ʔe	ɯ́mɛ-ʔɛ		inheritance			See Language page
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella	toopsipa (R95), tsoríri (FS)	kʰɯʔtʃípa (H&R92)		inheritance; loan, direction unknown	Ocaina sooriijo		See Language page
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui							See Language page	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae	anyï	anjɯ		inheritance			See Language page	Widespread South America
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita	múúmuco- +clas	mɯ́ɯ́mɯkʰo-		unique			See Language page
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons	úmoba (FS)	ɯ́moba		inheritance			See Language page
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus	kʰïḯmï; vana (R95)	kʰɯɯ́mɯ		loan, direction unknown	Murui Witoto guamɯ		See Language page
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari	pʰáápʰapʸa, mɨ́neépe, mɨ́neébe (FS)	pʰáápʰapʲa, mɨ́nɛέpe		inheritance			See Language page
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae	tóhmiba	tʰóʔmipa		unique			See Language page	Widespread Amazonia

Showing 1 to 133 of 133 entries

Cultural Vocabulary (97)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology						See Language page
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	tubóóco; wáñuú-	tɯpóó-kʰo, wáñɯɯ́-	inheritance; unknown		hunting, warfare	See Language page
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	ḯkwaá-xɨ	ɯ́kwaá-xɨ	inheritance		especially for clearing fields	See Language page
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool	worm: ïḯpa; common bait worm: tyuuhúmɨ; bait (in general): tájuta	worm: ɯ́ɯ́pa; common bait worm: tjɯɯʔɯ́mɨ; bait (in general): tʰáxɯtʰa			can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material	táátsaíhllo; cáánuco (made of wood)	tʰáátsʰaíʔtʃo; kʰáánɯkʰo (made of wood)	loan	Spanish		See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	úverújtsi	ɯ́βerɯ́xtsʰi	unique			See Language page
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material						See Language page
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material	ícyááveu	íkhjaβeu	unknown			See Language page
bed	cama	cama	culture-material	kʰïkwá-íʔkhyï {sleep-platform}, kʰḯkʷa-ɨ́ɨ́xɨ́ {sleep-barbacoa}	kʰɯkwá-íʔkhjɯ {sleep-platform}, kʰɯ́kʷa-ɨ́ɨ́xɨ́ {sleep-barbacoa}	inheritance/ calque			See Language page
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	íxʸa-kʷa, akʰḯḯβe-(kʷa)	íxʲa-kʷa, akʰɯ́ɯ́βɛ-(kʷa)	inheritance			See Language page
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool	tólliíjyu, tóllií		unique		currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool						See Language page
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation	añúro	añɯ́ro				See Language page
bottom grinding stone			manufacture					if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	tubóówa; tubo (bow & arrows)	tɯpoo-kwa	inheritance	cf. Proto-Arawak *[ta]po	arco	See Language page
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material	llijyácóóha	tʃixjákʰóóʔa	unique			See Language page
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	mɨɨ́ne	mɨɨ́nɛ	inheritance			See Language page
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	mííchi	míítʃʰi	loan - WW	%miʃi		See Language page
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	caracá	kʰarakʰá	loan - WW	%karaka		See Language page
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	ávyéjuúbe (ávyéju - cf. power, respect)	áβjéxɯɯ́pe	inheritance/calque			See Language page
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	wájyamu	kwáxjamɯ	unique			See Language page
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool						See Language page
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology					malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool	aamúíwu	aamɯ́íkwu			hunting and warfare	See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology	Píívyéébéé (piívye 'origin'), Mécáánií (me 'our' caanii 'father'), Niimúhe no discernable etymology)	Pʰííβjéépéé, Mékʰáánií, Niimúʔe	unique; unknown		In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool						See Language page
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	tuwa (to dream)	tʰɯkwa				See Language page
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology			missing			See Language page
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture	cuúmu-ba	kʰɯ́ɯ́mɯ-pa	loan - WW	%kumu	Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool	bojtsójɨ	poxtsʰóxɨ	inheritance?		esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology	ahvówa	aʔβokwa				See Language page
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other	mihlle, pámɨjco	miʔtʃe, pʰámɨxkʰo	unknown		may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture	páaxḯripá, méémepa {peach-palm}	páaxɯ́ripá (yuca+CL), mέέmɛpa {peach-palm}	unknown; inheritance		prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology						See Language page
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other						See Language page
firewood	leña	lenha	other	kʰoʔ-pa, kʰoó-kwa, kʰó-kʷaxkʰa, kʰó-βïḯrï	kʰoʔ-pa, kʰoó-kwa, kʰó-kʷaxkʰa, kʰó-βɯɯ́rɯ	inheritance			See Language page
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food	wacyu	kwakʰju	unique			See Language page
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	pijcyu	pʰixkʰju				See Language page
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool						See Language page
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool	pákyeé (type of fish trap in the shape of a funnel)	pʰákʰjeé				See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food	mááhoó; maʔmá-ɯ (Seifart11)	mááʔoó; maʔmá-ɯ (Seifart11)	inheritance? - loan into JIvaroan?		usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food	ítyacollíjyu (ítyaco 'tapioca')	íxtjákʰotʃííxjɯ	unique		agriculture	See Language page
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology	chiiyóro, péérihyo	tʃʰiijóro, pʰéériʔjo	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Iquito puráaha	multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food	iyáábe ('animal')	ijáápe	unique		Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	naavéne, chítyawáyu	naaβéne, tʃʰítʰjakwáju	unique			See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	tehke (tree calabash) (T98)	tehke (tree calabash) (T98)	doubtful loan - WW?	%koto/matoko		See Language page
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool	caátsoówa (caátso 'grate')	kʰaátsʰoókwa	unique		esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology	níjkyeé	nixkʰjeé				See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool	wáɨjɨ	kwáɨxɨ, -ɨɨxɨ	inheritance			See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool	úlleba	ɯ́tʃepa	inheritance		agriculture?	See Language page
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	añúju (añu 'shoot'), hójtsɨ́vapáájɨ (hojtsɨva 'spear', hojtsɨɨ́ 'hand')	añɯxɯ	unique			See Language page
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	kwaá-pya, kʷaá-pa	kwaá-pja, kʷaá-pa	inheritance			See Language page
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	watájcojɨ (watajco 'cover')	kwatʰáxkʰoxɨ	unique			See Language page
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology	čḯḯβáápeé	tʃɯ́ɯ́βáápɛέ			Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics						See Language page
honey	miel	mel	food	íímúhojpácyo (from 'bee')	íímɯ́ʔoxpákʰjo	loan (into protolg?), direction unknown	Witotoan	only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page
house			other	xaá, iʔ-xʸa {his-house}, pááe-xa {communal without floor}, kʰáámée-xa {with floor}	xaá, iʔ-xʲa {his-house}, pááɛ-xa {communal without floor}, kʰáámέɛ-xa {with floor}	inheritance			See Language page
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	taáva, lliiñája	tʰaáβa, tʃiiñáxa				See Language page
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	nɨɨtsʰḯkwa-(kwï) {machete-(small)}	nɨɨtsʰɯ́kwa-(kwɯ) {machete-(small)}	unique	machete-small'		See Language page
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress	waáyu	kwaájɯ				See Language page
machete	machete	facão	culture-material	nɨɨtsú-wa	nɨɨtsʰɯ́-kwa	inheritance			See Language page
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool	cáánu	kʰáánɯ	unknown			See Language page
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	poʔtó-kwa, poʔtó-xɨ	poʔtó-kwa, poʔtó-xɨ	inheritance			See Language page
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology						See Language page
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology	waána	kwaána				See Language page
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	waajácuháámɨ (waajácu 'knowledge)	kwaaxákʰɯʔáámɨ	unique			See Language page
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool	cáánuco	kʰáánɯkʰo				See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other						See Language page
plate	plato	prato	culture-material	bohtájɨ	poʔtʰáxɨ	inheritance			See Language page
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation						See Language page
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	číyi-ʔčo	tʃíji-ʔtʃo	inheritance			See Language page
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology	čʰeʔkʰéï	tʃɛʔkʰέɯ	doubtful loan	onomatopoeia, but cf. Arawak, Cayapa, Bora, Jivaroan (loan INTO Resigaro)		See Language page
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool	máánií 'brea'	máánií 'brea'	loan (into protolg?)	Arawak		See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology						See Language page
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	kʷáápʸaï, pʰátoʔxɨ	kʷáápʸaɯ, pʰátoʔxɨ	inheritance			See Language page
salt	sal	sal	food	cánáámaá (salt); ume (salt made from plants)	kʰánáámaá (salt); ume (sal de monte)	unknown; inheritance	loan into Resigaro? direction uncertain		See Language page
school	escuela	escola	acculturation	uwááboha (uwaabo 'teach')	ɯkwáápoʔa				See Language page
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology	ñaamáwa	ñaamákwa	unique		In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress	túhapáájɨ (túhaá 'foot')	tʰɯ́ʔapʰááxɨ				See Language page
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material	wáyumɨ́ɨ́ho	kwájɯmɨ́ɨ́ʔo	unique			See Language page
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation	tsodáho	tsʰotáʔo	loan	Span/Port soldado		See Language page
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology	majtsíyu (song); llééneba (insulting); ijchóju (drinking)	matsʰíjɯ, tʃéénepa, ixtʃʰóxɯ	inheritance			See Language page
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	aamú, hójtsɨva	aamɯ, ʔóxtsʰɨβa	inheritance; unknown			See Language page
spearthrower			subsistence tool						See Language page
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food	ítyaco	ítjakʰo	inheritance			See Language page
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material						See Language page
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	imújtso (v. 'sweeten')	imúxtsʰo				See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food	cáhgunu	kʰáʔkɯnɯ			agriculture	See Language page
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology	oonóva	oonóβa				See Language page
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material	ajɨ	axɨ	inheritance			See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food	booáju, wahmɨ́jɨ	booáxɯ, kwaʔmɨ́xɨ	unknown		word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture					use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool					agriculture	See Language page
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool	námijtya	námixtja	doubtful loan (into protolg?) - WW?	cf. %namo	hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page
wax	cera	cera	other			missing			See Language page
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	níjtyuba (nijtyu 'wash')	níxtjɯpa	inheritance		agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology					a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page

Showing 1 to 97 of 97 entries

Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source	General Notes
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	no	However, there is a very intricate classification system that acts like compounding.	Seifart - 2005
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no		Seifart - 2005
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	no		Seifart - 2005
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no		Seifart - 2005:58-62
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	no		Seifart - 2005:58-62
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	yes	tense, aspect, mood	Seifart - 2005: 61
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	yes		Seifart - 2005:41,61-62
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes		Seifart - 2005: 58
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Seifart - 2005: 58
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Seifart - 2005: 58
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Seifart - 2005: 58
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	yes		Seifart - 2005:96-100
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	yes		Seifart - 2005:96-100
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	yes		Seifart - 2005:62-65
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no		Seifart - 2005:58-65
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	no	Affixes (on NPs and VPs) used to mark.	Seifart - 2005:68
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	8		Seifart - 2005: 68
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no		Seifart - 2005: 68
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	no		Seifart - 2005:68
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	yes		Seifart - 2005:68
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Seifart - 2005:68
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Seifart - 2005:68
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Seifart - 2005:68
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Seifart - 2005:68
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Seifart - 2005:68
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no		Seifart - 2005:68
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	yes	Article for definite/indefinite is the same. It can be interpreted as definite or indefinite, depending on the context.	Seifart - 2005:125
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	yes		Seifart - 2005:126
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	yes	Article for definite/indefinite is the same. It can be interpreted as definite or indefinite, depending on the context.	Seifart - 2005:125
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	yes		Seifart - 2005:52-55
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Seifart - 2005:52-55
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	yes	2 contrasts: that, this (as well as these, which is perceived through conext). Thiesen also notes a contrast of "some."	Seifart - 2005:126; Thiesen - 1996:36
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no		Seifart - 2005:126
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes		Seifart - 2005:77-82
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	6	Thiesen notes 3 main classes: concrete, abstract, and locative (which includes animates and inanimates).	Seifart - 2005: 77; Thiesen - 1996:27
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes	66 classifiers. Mainly describe shape, but also include gender and animacy.	Seifart - 2005:77
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	yes		Seifart - 2005:208
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Seifart - 2005:201-222
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	yes		Seifart - 2005:77-83
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	no		Seifart - 2005:83
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		yes		Seifart - 2005:201-222
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes		Seifart - 2005:201-222
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	yes		Seifart - 2005:94
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	yes		Seifart - 2005:56
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	yes	In addition to V+classifier, suffixes can be used on nouns derive new nouns. Since there are 72 classifiers, new nouns can easily be formed.	Seifart - 2005:58-59, 201-222
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	yes		Seifart - 2005:235; Thiesen - 1996:43
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes	Thiesen notes that plurality can also be achieved by manipulating the noun classifiers that are chosen. There are also unique plural markers that correspond to specific noun classes.	Seifart - 2005: 56; Thiesen - 1996:26-30
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Seifart - 2005: 56
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Seifart - 2005: 56
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Seifart - 2005: 56
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no		Seifart - 2005: 56
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no		Seifart - 2005:55
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no		Seifart - 2005:52-57
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	yes		Seifart - 2005:54-57
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	yes		Seifart - 2005:130-131
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no		Seifart - 2005
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no		Seifart - 2005:130-132
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no		Seifart - 2005:130-131
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Seifart - 2005:130-132
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Seifart - 2005:130-132
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes	Nominal.	Seifart - 2005:72-73
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes	Mostly adjectival.	Seifart - 2005:31-73
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		yes		Seifart - 2005: 52-55
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		yes		Seifart - 2005: 52-55
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		yes		Seifart - 2005: 52-55
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Seifart - 2005: 52-55
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no	Use verbal affix instead.	Seifart - 2005: 59
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	no	The adjectives are classifiers.	Seifart - 2005:77-103
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	no		Seifart - 2005:77-103
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	no		Seifart - 2005:58-63
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	no		Seifart - 2005:58-63
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	no	In some instances, the nominalization is achieved through tone change.	Seifart - 2005:58-63
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	yes		Seifart - 2005:58
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no		Seifart - 2005:64-73
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes		Seifart - 2005:52; Thiesen - 1996:40
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Seifart - 2005:52
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no		Seifart - 2005:37,46,52-57
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes		Seifart - 2005:37,46,52-57
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	yes		Seifart - 2005:197-198
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Seifart - 2005:64
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	yes		Seifart - 2005:64
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	yes	Marked with accusative case.	Seifart - 2005:64
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	no		Seifart - 2005:64
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	yes		Seifart - 2005:64
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Seifart - 2005
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no		Seifart 2005
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	yes		Seifart - 2005:33
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	yes	According to Thiesen, most stops (along with most consonants) become palatalized after the vowel [i].	Seifart - 2005:33-36; Thiesen - 1996:18-20
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	yes		Seifart - 2005:32-33
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Seifart - 2005:32-46
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Seifart - 2005:34-46
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	no		Seifart - 2005:32-46
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Seifart - 2005:34-46
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	yes	2 (low and high)	Seifart - 2005:39-43
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no		Seifart - 2005:32-46
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no		Seifart - 2005:32-46
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no		Seifart - 2005:32-46
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		yes		Seifart - 2005:37-38
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	yes		Seifart - 2005:68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Seifart - 2005:68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no		Seifart - 2005:68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Seifart - 2005:68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Seifart - 2005:68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		yes		Seifart - 2005:65-68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no		Seifart - 2005:65-68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Seifart - 2005:65-68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Seifart - 2005:65-68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Seifart - 2005:65-68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	yes		Seifart - 2005:65-68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Seifart - 2005:65-68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Seifart - 2005:65-68
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Seifart - 2005:58-73
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no		Seifart - 2005:58-73
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	no		Seifart - 2005
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	yes		Seifart - 2005:69; Thiesen - 1996:66
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Seifart - 2005:69
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Seifart - 2005:69
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	no		Seifart - 2005:69
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no		Seifart - 2005:69
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	yes		Seifart - 2005:72
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no		Seifart - 2005:72
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	yes		Seifart - 2005:72; Thiesen - 1996:70
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	no		Seifart - 2005:72
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Seifart - 2005:72
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	yes	Affix "-tɯ" can be used on its own, especially when the object of the phrase is vague or not referred to.	Seifart - 2005:72
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no info		Seifart - 2005
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no info		Seifart - 2005
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	yes		Seifart - 2005:248-257
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no	Instead, the classifier of the suejct is used as a reference. No special marker.	Seifart - 2005:248-257
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	no		Seifart - 2005:248-257
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	yes		Seifart - 2005:133
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	yes	Since adjectives are just classifiers, they not only are able to modify nouns, but also act as nouns.	Seifart - 2005:77-103
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	yes		Seifart - 2005:63-73
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes		Seifart - 2005:70-71
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no		Seifart - 2005:70-71
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	yes		Seifart - 2005:70-71
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		no		Seifart - 2005:70-71
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no		Seifart - 2005:70-71
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes	However, the pronominal subject can also be an affix on the verb, occuring as a classifier. The recipient would then take an accusative affix in the subject position.	Seifart - 2005:52-54
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Seifart - 2005:52-54
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes		Seifart - 2005:52-54
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Seifart - 2005:52-54
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Seifart - 2005:52-54
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	yes	The affix is a classifier, typically designating gender and number.	Seifart - 2005:54-57
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes		Seifart - 2005:65-68
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	no		Seifart - 2005:65-68
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	yes		Seifart - 2005:52
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	yes		Seifart - 2005:52
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	yes		Seifart - 2005:52-56
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	no		Seifart - 2005:52
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	yes	When necessary/desirable to distinguish gender, the affix is a classifier that accomplishes it. These classifiers are essentially verbal person markers.	Seifart - 2005:52-55
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	no		Seifart - 2005:65
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no		Seifart - 2005:65
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	yes	The object/theme recieves an allative case marking.	Seifart - 2005:65
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes		Seifart - 2005:59
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	yes		Seifart - 2005:59
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	no		Seifart - 2005:59
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	no		Seifart - 2005:58-73
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no		Seifart - 2005:58-73
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no		Seifart - 2005:58-73
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	no info		Seifart - 2005
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	no info		Seifart - 2005
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Seifart - 2005:59
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes		Seifart - 2005:59
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Seifart - 2005:59
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	no		Seifart - 2005:59
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no info		Seifart - 2005
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no		Seifart - 2005:59
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	yes		Seifart - 2005:62-72
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	yes	Remote, recent.	Seifart - 2005:72-73
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no		Seifart - 2005:61
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		yes		Seifart - 2005:61
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Seifart - 2005: 61-62
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Seifart - 2005: 61-62
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Seifart - 2005: 61-62
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Seifart - 2005:61-62
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	yes		Seifart - 2005:59
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	yes		Seifart - 2005:73
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	yes	"Recent past;" what is expressed in the clause took place on the same or previous day.	Seifart - 2005:72
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		yes		Seifart - 2005:73
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no		Seifart - 2005:72-73
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Seifart - 2005:72-73
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Seifart - 2005:72-73
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no	Prefixes that agree with subject used instead.	Seifart - 2005:52
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	yes	Different affixes are used.	Seifart - 2005: 51-61
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no		Seifart - 2005:61
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no info		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no info		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no info		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no info		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no info		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no info		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	yes		Seifart - 2005:61; Thiesen - 1996:71
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	yes		Seifart - 2005:61; Thiesen - 1996:70
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no		Seifart - 2005
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		yes		Seifart - 2005:83
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		yes	Free word order, with one exception: when using predicate marker on the verb, it must be preceded by an NP subject.	Seifart - 2005:68	Most common: SOV
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no	Subject usually a verbal affix, but specific subject (e.g. "uncle, friend…") precedes verb.	Seifart - 2005:63-68
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no		Seifart - 2005:63-68
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	yes	Not most common order, however.	Seifart - 2005:63-68
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	yes	Not most common order, however.	Seifart - 2005:63-68
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Seifart - 2005:63-68
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Seifart - 2005:63-68
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes		Seifart - 2005:52
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no		Seifart - 2005:52
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	no		Seifart - 2005:133-134
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	yes		Seifart - 2005:133-134
Word Order	Dem-Noun		no		Seifart - 2005:57
Word Order	Noun-Dem		yes		Seifart - 2005:57
Word Order	Num-Noun		no		Seifart - 2005:230
Word Order	Noun-Num		yes		Seifart - 2005:230
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes		Seifart - 2005:69-73
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Seifart - 2005:69-73
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	yes		Seifart - 2005:69-73
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Seifart - 2005:69-73
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Seifart - 2005:69

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