Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Nheengatu

Family: Tupian
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: yrl
Location: 1.05°, -66.96°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information

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Data Sources: da Cruz, Aline. 2011. Fonologia e Gramática do Nheengatú: A língua geral falada pelos povos Baré, Warekena e Baniwa. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. (Doctoral disseration). Grenand, Françoise and Epaminondas Henrique Ferreira. 1989. Pequeno Dicionário da Língua Geral. (Série Amazônas, Cultura Regional 6.) Manaus: SEDUC. Mello, Octaviano. 2003. Dicionário Tupi-Portugues, Portugues-Tupi, 2nd ed. Manaus: EDUA.

Basic Vocabulary (192)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar			missing			See Language page
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	ya (used before a verb) yandé ("Etimologia: cf. ya, Se usa antes do verbo já completado para insistir)	ja (used before a verb) jandé ("Etimologia: cf. ya, Se usa antes do verbo já completado para insistir)	inheritance		no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted	See Language page
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	ixé	iʃé	inheritance		For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms	See Language page
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	peyẽ	pejẽ	inheritance			See Language page
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	re, ere, indé	re, ere, indé	inheritance			See Language page
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	tau, tai	tau, tai (etym: from "ta" which is most likely a 3rd person possesive)	unique			See Language page
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	u	u	inheritance			See Language page
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	iwaté	iwaté	inheritance			See Language page
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar	ãmũramẽkuri (uma outra vez)	ãmũramẽkuri (uma outra vez)	inheritance			See Language page
all	todo	todos	other	payẽ	pajẽ	inheritance?			See Language page
and	y	e	grammar	i	i	loan	Span/Port y/e 'and'		See Language page
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body			missing			See Language page
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body	iuáuíra	iwáwíra	inheritance			See Language page
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	tanimbuka	tanimbuka	inheritance			See Language page
at	en, a	em, a	location	çuiwara (from çui=de/ wara= marca do hábitato)	suiwaɾa (from sui= de / waɾa=marca do hábitato)	unknown			See Language page
back	espalda	costas	body	kupé, ku'á	kupé, ku'á	inheritance			See Language page
bad	mal	mal	quality	puxuwera	puʃuwera	unknown			See Language page
bark	corteza	casca	environment	pirera	pirera	inheritance			See Language page
belly	barriga	barriga	body	marika (from portuguese)	marika	loan	Portuguese barriga		See Language page
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location	yawika ('to lower')	jawika (to 'lower')	unknown			See Language page
big	grande	grande	quality	açu	asu	inheritance			See Language page
bite	morder	morder	body	çuu (with variant çu'u)	suu (with variant su'u)	inheritance			See Language page
black	negro	preto	colour	pixuna, tapayuna (piju=black, used in various native tupi languages, tapajuna used for color of skin)	piʃuna, tapajuna (piju=black, used in various native tupi languages, tapajuna used for color of skin)	inheritance			See Language page
blood	sangre	sangue	body	tui	tui	inheritance			See Language page
blow	soplar	soprar	body	peyu	peju	inheritance			See Language page
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body			missing			See Language page
bone	hueso	osso	body	kãwera	kãweɾa	inheritance			See Language page
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	kambi, putiá	kambi, putiá	inheritance			See Language page
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	angá (noun, respiração)	anga (noun, respiração)	unknown			See Language page
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	kay	kaj	inheritance	Arawak		See Language page
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body			missing			See Language page
child	niño, niña	criança	human	taina, aina	taina, aina	unique			See Language page
climb	subir	subir	motion	yupíri	jupiɾi	inheritance			See Language page
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment			missing			See Language page
cold	frío	frio	quality	uçanga	usaŋga	unique			See Language page
come	venir	vir	motion	yuwirí, úri	juwiɾi, uɾi	inheritance			See Language page
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	memũy	memũi	inheritance			See Language page
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality	até (from eté= verdadeiro)	atɛ (from ɛtɛ= verdadeiro)	inheritance			See Language page
count	contar	contar	mental	papári	papaɾi	inheritance			See Language page
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	yaciu, yaxiu (variant)	jasiu, jaʃiu (variant)	inheritance			See Language page
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	munuka, yapina	munuka, japina	inheritance			See Language page
day	día	dia	time	ara	ara	inheritance			See Language page
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	manũ	manũ	inheritance			See Language page
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	pikũy	pikũi	inheritance			See Language page
dingo/wolf			fauna			missing			See Language page
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	kiá	kia	inheritance			See Language page
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	kérpi	keɾpi	inheritance			See Language page
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	u	u	inheritance			See Language page
dry	seco	seco	quality	tikanga	tikaŋga	inheritance			See Language page
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality			missing			See Language page
dust	polvo	poeira	environment	mukawa kuí	mukawa kuí	inheritance/sem shift?	see 'flour'		See Language page
ear	oreja	orelha	body	nambi	nambi	inheritance			See Language page
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	iwi (Mello2000)	iwi (Mello2000)	inheritance			See Language page
eat	comer	comer	body	mbau	mbau	inheritance			See Language page
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	upiá	upiá	inheritance			See Language page
eye	ojo	olho	body	eça, ceçá	esá, sesá	inheritance			See Language page
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body	tiputi	tiputi	inheritance			See Language page
fall	caer	cair	motion	wári	waɾi	inheritance			See Language page
far	lejos	longe	quality	pekatu (from pé=caminho, katu=bom), apekatu (from ape=ai, katu=bom)	pɛkatu (from pɛ=caminho, katu=bom), apɛkatu (from apɛ=ai, katu=bom)	unique			See Language page
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	kawaçawa (kawa=gordo, sawa=nominalizer)	kawasawa (kawa=gordo, sawa=nominalizer)	unknown			See Language page
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	parú, pai (from POR) paya	parú, pai (from POR), paja	unknown; doubtful loan	Portuguese		See Language page
fear	miedo	medo	mental	akayémũ	akajɛmũ	inheritance			See Language page
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	awa	awa	inheritance			See Language page
fingernail	uña	unha	body	puãpé (pu=pe)	puãpé (pu=pe)	inheritance			See Language page
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	tatá, atá	tatá, atá	inheritance			See Language page
fish	xx	xx	fauna	pirá (generic word for fish) akará (generic term used to refer to certain species of fish such as cichlids, there are other terms for "fish."	pirá (generic word for fish) akará (generic term used to refer to certain species of fish such as cichlids, there are other terms for "fish.") akarí (also used for generic name for a species of fish)	inheritance			See Language page
flow	fluir	fluir	motion			missing			See Language page
flower	flor	flor	environment	putira	putiɾa	inheritance	Tikuna		See Language page
fly	volar	voar	motion	wewé	wewé	inheritance			See Language page
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment			missing			See Language page
foot	pie	pé	body	pí	pí	inheritance			See Language page
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	iwa	iwa	inheritance			See Language page
good	bueno	bom	quality	katu	katu	inheritance			See Language page
green	verde	verde	quality	çuikíri	suikíɾi	inheritance			See Language page
grow	crecer	crescer	state	yukiriári (from kiriári=do portuguȇs criar), yumijã (from mujã=fazer), puãmu	jukiriari (from kiriari=do portuguȇs criar), jumijã (mujã=fazer), puãmu	unique			See Language page
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	awa	awa	inheritance			See Language page
hand	mano	mão	body	pu	pu	inheritance			See Language page
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	akanga	akaŋga	inheritance			See Language page
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	cendu	sendu	inheritance			See Language page
heart	corazón	coração	body	piá (also used for stomach and liver?)	piá (also used for stomach and liver?)	inheritance			See Language page
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	pucé	pusé	unknown			See Language page
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	yumimi, kiriri (esconder-se)	jumimi, kiɾiɾi (esconder-se)	inheritance			See Language page
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	peteka, tuká, nupá	peteka, tuká, nupá	inheritance	likely loan Nheengatu > Warekena (Arawak) peta (other N Arawak forms distinct)		See Language page
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	aikwé	aikwé	unknown			See Language page
hot	caliente	quente	quality	çaku	saku	inheritance			See Language page
how?	como	como	grammar	maupé	maupɛ	inheritance			See Language page
if	si	se	grammar	ça, aramẽ	sa, aɾamẽ	unknown			See Language page
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	kwarupé (contração de kwara upé), kwara	kwaɾupɛ (contração de kwaɾa upɛ), kwaɾa	inheritance			See Language page
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	búxu	búʃu	unique			See Language page
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body	yuçara, karãy	jusaɾa, karãj	unknown			See Language page
kill	matar	matar	impact	yuká	juká	inheritance			See Language page
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	kwáu, koyecéri (from POR)	kwáu, kojeséri (from POR)	inheritance			See Language page
lake	lago	lago	environment	ipá	ipa	inheritance			See Language page
laugh	reír	rir	mental	puká	puka	inheritance			See Language page
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	awa, ka'a, uá	awa, kaʔa, uá	inheritance; inheritance; unknown			See Language page
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body			missing			See Language page
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	etimã	etimã	inheritance			See Language page
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	yenũ	jenũ	inheritance			See Language page
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	werá	wera	inheritance			See Language page
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body	murári	murari	loan	Portuguese		See Language page
liver	hígado	figado	body	piá (also used for heart and stomach?	piá (also used for heart and stomach?	inheritance			See Language page
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	puku	puku	inheritance			See Language page
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	kiwa	kiwa	inheritance		order Phtiraptera	See Language page
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	angariru, piayawewa´á	angaɾiɾu, piajawewaʔá	unique; unique			See Language page
man/male	hombre	homem	human	apigá, apigawa (apigawa is an older variety of apiga)	apigá, apigawa (apigawa is an older variety of apiga)	unknown			See Language page
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	çuukwera	suukwera	inheritance			See Language page
moon	luna	lua	environment	yaci	jasi	inheritance			See Language page
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	maya, mãmãy	maja, mãmãj	unknown; loan	Span/Port?		See Language page
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	yumbuiçawa (yumbui-lavrar, çawa-nominalizer)	jumbuisawa (jumbui=lavrar, sawa=nominalizer)	unique			See Language page
mouth	boca	boca	body	yuru	juru	inheritance			See Language page
name	nombre	nome	human	eɾa	eɾa	inheritance			See Language page
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body			missing			See Language page
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	uaki (uá= rostro)	uaki (ua= rostro)	unique			See Language page
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	ayura	ajuɾa	inheritance			See Language page
new	nuevo	novo	quality	piçaçu	pisasu	inheritance			See Language page
night	noche	noite	time	pituna (from piʃuna=black)	pituna (from piʃuna=black)	inheritance			See Language page
no/not	no	não	grammar	umba´á	umbaʔa	unknown			See Language page
nose	nariz	nariz	body	tĩ	tĩ	inheritance			See Language page
old	viejo	velho	quality	tuyuwé	tujuwé	inheritance			See Language page
one	uno	um	number	yepé	yepé	inheritance			See Language page
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	pirári	pirári	inheritance?			See Language page
other	otro	outro	grammar	ãmũ	ãmũ	inheritance			See Language page
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body	maci, çaci	masi, sasi	inheritance			See Language page
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	mira	mira	unknown			See Language page
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	peteka, nupá	peteka, nupá	unknown			See Language page
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	amãna	amãna	inheritance			See Language page
red	rojo	vermelho	colour	piranga	piɾaŋga	inheritance			See Language page
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body			missing			See Language page
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	pé	pé	inheritance			See Language page
root	raíz	raiz	flora	apu	apu	inheritance			See Language page
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	uka	uka	inheritance			See Language page
sand	arena	areia	environment	iwikũĩ (morphologically complex: iwi = terra)	iwikũĩ (morphologically complex: iwi = terra)	inheritance			See Language page
say	decir	dizer	mental	yẽ'ẽ	jẽʔẽ	inheritance			See Language page
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact	çuruka (~torn)	suɾuka (~torn)	inheritance			See Language page
see	ver	ver	mental	mã´ã	mãʔã	inheritance			See Language page
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality			missing			See Language page
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	yapi	japi	inheritance			See Language page
short	corto	curto	quality	atuka	atuka	inheritance			See Language page
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	apa	apa	unique			See Language page
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental	tiçawa ('shame')	tisawa ('shame')	missing			See Language page
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	apika	apika	inheritance			See Language page
skin	piel	pele	body	pirera (same as bark)	piɾeɾa (same as bark)	inheritance			See Language page
sky	cielo	céu	environment	iwaka, iyuwaka	iwaka, ijuwaka	inheritance			See Language page
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	kíri	kíri	inheritance			See Language page
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	miri, ananika (possibly from portuguese anão)	miɾi, ananika (possibly from portuguese anão)	inheritance; unknown			See Language page
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	tatatinga (tata=fogo, tinga=branco)	tatatiŋga (tata=fogo, tinga=branco)	inheritance			See Language page
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	uçetúna	usetuna	inheritance		primarily transitive	See Language page
spit	escupir	cuspir	body	tumuna (Mello2000)	tumuna (Mello2000)	inheritance			See Language page
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	munuçuka	munusuka	inheritance			See Language page
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	yami	jami	inheritance			See Language page
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact			missing			See Language page
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	puãmu	puãmu	inheritance			See Language page
star	estrella	estrela	environment	yacitá (older term, yaci=lua, ta=tatá=fogo), estrela (from POR, newer term)	jasitá (older term, yaci=lua, ta=tatá=fogo) estrela (from POR, newer term)	inheritance			See Language page
steal	robar	roubar	other	mundá	munda	inheritance			See Language page
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	mirá	mira	inheritance			See Language page
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	itá	itá	inheritance			See Language page
suck	chupar	chupar	body	pitera	pitera	inheritance			See Language page
sun	sol	sol	time	kuraci	kuɾasi	inheritance			See Language page
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body	ucíaí	utsíaí	inheritance			See Language page
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	punga (inchado)	punga (inchado)	unknown			See Language page
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	witá	witá	inheritance			See Language page
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	uaya	uaja	inheritance			See Language page
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar	kuá, yã'ã	kuá, yãʔã	inheritance	cf. Máku kua		See Language page
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	kawa	kawa	unique			See Language page
thin	delgado	fino	quality	kai	kai	unique			See Language page
think	pensar	pensar	mental	maité, manduãri	maite, manduãri	unknown			See Language page
this	este/esta	este	grammar	kuá	kuá, yaʔá, yawaʔá, paʔá, kuá,	unknown			See Language page
three	tres	tres	number	muçapíri	musapíɾi	inheritance			See Language page
throat	garganta	garganta	body	kuruka	kuruka	doubtful loan	Portuguese/Spanish?		See Language page
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	yapi, mburi (jogar fora)	japi, mburi (jogar fora)	inheritance			See Language page
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	trovã [Pt loan]	trovã [Pt loan]	loan	Portuguese trovão		See Language page
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	yaputi, pukwári	japuti, pukwári	inheritance; inheritance			See Language page
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	apeku	apeku	inheritance			See Language page
tooth	diente	dente	body	aya	aja	inheritance			See Language page
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other	muyeréu (mu=fazer, yeréu=virar-se), yeréu	mujereu (mu=fazer, jereu=virar-se), jereu	inheritance		may be transitive or intransitive	See Language page
two	dos	dois	number	mũkũy	mũkũj	inheritance			See Language page
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	wena	wena	inheritance			See Language page
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	watá, muratá	watá, muratá	inheritance			See Language page
water	agua	agua	environment	i'i ii	iʔi, ii (the two differ by refering to one water being considered fresher than the other)	inheritance			See Language page
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	mururu (verb, molhar)	mururu (verb, molhar)	loan	Portuguese		See Language page
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	maá	maá	inheritance			See Language page
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	ramẽ, maramẽ (ma=mã´ã=coisa, ramẽ=quando)	ramẽ, maramẽ (ma=mãʔã=coisa, ramẽ=quando)	inheritance			See Language page
where?	donde	onde	grammar	maciwã, mamẽ	masiwã, mamẽ	inheritance; inheritance			See Language page
white	blanco	branco	colour	murutinga	muɾutiŋga	inheritance			See Language page
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	awá	awá	inheritance			See Language page
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	imiriku	imiriku	inheritance			See Language page
wind	viento	vento	environment	iwitu	iwitu	inheritance			See Language page
wing	ala	asa	body	pepu	pepu	inheritance			See Language page
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	kuyã, way (old woman)	kujã, wai (old woman)	inheritance			See Language page
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	puraki	puɾaki	inheritance			See Language page
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body			missing			See Language page
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	tawá (used for the generic word for yellow), uaiwa (used to refer to color of skin)	tawá (used for the generic word for yellow), uaiwa (used to refer to color of skin)	inheritance			See Language page


1pl.excl
1pl.incl
1sg
2pl
2sg
3pl
3sg
above
again
all
and
ankle
armpit
ash
at
back
bad
bark
belly
below
big
bite
black
blood
blow
boil/pimple
bone
breast
breathe
burn
chew
child
climb
cloud
cold
come
cook
correct/true
count
cry
cut/hack
day
die/be dead
dig
dingo/wolf
dirty
dream
drink
dry
dull/blunt
dust
ear
earth/soil
eat
egg
eye
faeces
fall
far
fat/grease
father
fear
feather
fingernail
fire
fish
flow
flower
fly
fog
foot
fruit
good
green
grow
hair (of head)
hand
head
hear
heart
heavy
hide
hit
hold
hot
how?
if
in/inside
intestines
itch
kill
know/be knowledgeable
lake
laugh
leaf
left/left hand
leg/foot
lie down
lightning
live/be alive
liver
long
louse
lung
man/male
meat/flesh
moon
mother
mountain/hill
mouth
name
nape
near/close
neck
new
night
no/not
nose
old
one
open/uncover
other
pain/painful/sick
person/human being
pound/beat
rain
red
right/right hand
road/path
root
rotten
sand
say
scratch
see
sharp
shoot
short
shoulder
shy/ashamed
sit
skin
sky
sleep
small
smoke
sniff/smell
spit
split
squeeze
stab/pierce
stand
star
steal
stick/wood
stone
suck
sun
sweat
swell
swim
tail
that
thick
thin
think
this
three
throat
throw
thunder
tie up/fasten
tongue
tooth
turn
two
vomit
walk
water
wet
what?
when?
where?
white
who?
wife
wind
wing
woman/female
work
yawn
yellow

Showing 1 to 192 of 192 entries

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (138)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Source	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Food Source	Medicinal	Psychotropic	Traded	Distribution	Dangerous	General Notes
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana	uruku	uɾuku		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	1	0	0	0	1	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	shrub
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	akuti, akutia	akuti, akutia		loan into protolg, direction unknown	Proto-Tupi-Guarani	Carib	Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. Also: akutia				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	yakaré (generic term) diridiri (giant alligator, from arawak)	jakaré (generic term), diridiri (giant alligator, from arawak)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. Also: diridiri (giant alligator, from arawak)				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Throughout Amazonia	no?	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis	pirá yawara ('fish-jaguar')	pirá jawara ('fish-jaguar')		unique							Compound	fish feline/jaguar'	See Language page	1	0	0	0	0	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls	no
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia				missing			Probably kukura						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	no	a tree; not a true grape
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes	çukuriyu, mbuyawaçu (possibly fictitious animal)	sukuɾiju, mbujawasu (possibly fictitious animal)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. Also: mbuyawaçu (possibly fictitious animal)				underived		See Language page	2	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	yes
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	xibui	ʃibui		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae	çaiwa, taçiwa	saiwa, tasiwa	Generic, but same term also means 'formiga-lava-pe, Solenopsis'	inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)	wariri, wariri'i	waɾiɾi, waɾiɾi'i		doubtful loan		Carib, e.g. Wayana walisi	Also: waɾiɾi'i				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonian lowlands	no
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	tatu	tatu		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread in Amazonia	no
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum	canarâna 'false cane'	kanarana		unknown							underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	tropical regions, especially river banks	no	plant
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana				unknown									See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	tree
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.	waçai, waçai iwitepura, waçai ka`atingapura, waçai maniwa, morpheme "pura" meaning whole, or indicator of place	wasai, wasai iwitepura (a species of the assai tree) wasai ka'atingapura (another species of the tree with a smaller fruit?) wasai maniwa (a porridge made out of manioc and assai berries. Nutritious and very filling, purple in color) morpheme "pura" mean		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia	no
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.	pakuá, pakuvá	pakuá (word for banana, types of banana are identified by this word) bayé (variedad de banana), pakuvá		inheritance?			Mello 2000 reconstructs to PTG; probably a semantic shift from Heliconia. Also: pakuvá; bayé (variedad de banana),				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.	andirá	andirá		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.	fejã (from POR, replaced tupi word /kumanda/)	fejã (from POR, replaced tupi word /kumanda/)		loan	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. Also fejã (Pt loan)				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		uirá	wirá		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala	pindaiwa mirá (scientific name unknown) iwira (other name describes envira trees, under family name Annona)	pindaiwa mirá (scientific name unknown) iwira (other name describes envira trees, under family name Annona)		unknown			Also: pindaiwa mirá (scientific name unknown)				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forests, native to Brazil	no	tree
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba	iwakaiwa (iwa = tree, iwaka=fruit of bacabeira; matches nomenclature), iwa pixuna (iwa=fruit, pixuna=black)	iwakaiwa (matches nomenclature),iwa piʃuna??(iwa=fruit, piʃuna=black)		unknown							Compound	either 'tree fat' or 'tree wasp'	See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	no	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	meru	meru		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae	jibuya (ji=machado, buya=cobra) jibuya murutinga (white boa)	ʒobóia (ʒi=machado, buya=cobra), ʒobóia murutiŋga (white boa)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				Compound	(ji=axe, buya=snake)	See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	kuya	kuja		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	indigenous gardens	no	plant; tree
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']	kastaya (borrowing from POR) kastayatiwa	kastaja (borrowing from POR), kastajatiwa	castanha-do-Para	loan		Portuguese					underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	no	tree
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha	aimoré (Mello 2003); makaka marikawaçu (makaka=macaco, marika=barriga, wasu=grande)	aimoré (Mello 2003); makaka marikawaçu (makaka=macaco, marika=barriga, wasu=grande)		loan; loan/calque		Carib? Carijona aimoré; Portuguese	macaco' (plus calque 'big-bellied'?) Also: aimoré (Mello 2003)				Phrase	(makaka=macaco, marika=barriga, wasu=grande)	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata				missing			Probably tocandira						See Language page	2	0	0	0	0		yes
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	panapana	panapana		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				Reduplicated		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris	kapiuçara, kapiwara	kapiusara		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Inheritance Proto-Tupi-Guarani. Also: kapiusara				No info		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.	cará	kará		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	no	plant
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum	akayu	akaju		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale				missing									See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Brazil, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, Guyana	no
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda				missing									See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea	daridari	daridari		unknown			Probably onomatopoeic. Also: jakirana (reconstructs PTG; Mello 2003)				Reduplicated		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.	xipu (many other words used for this type of vine)	ʃipu (many other words used for this type of vine)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forest, floodplain	no	vine
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca	ipadu	ipadu		loan - WW		%patu		WW	%patu		underived		See Language page	1	0	0	1	1	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	no	plant
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria	arawé (also used for different species of insects)	arawé (also used for different species of insects)		inheritance? - WW	Proto-Tupi-Guarani	%arawe, Mello 2000 taraBe; cf. Carib ()masarawa	Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000			Generic, used for certain other insects	underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu	taititu	taititu		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. Also: kaitetu, tayasu				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua				missing									See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)	amaniú	amaniú		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	1	secondary scrub vegetation	no	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura	uça	usa		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae				missing									See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cunuri (tree)	cunuri	cunuri	flora-fauna	Cunurea spruceana	kunuri	kunuri	Cunuria crassipes	unknown							underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Amazonia	no
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.	urumutum	uɾumutum		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				Phrase	uru 'big' ('big mutum')	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Amazonia	no
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	çuaçu	suasu		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna		çuaçu (generic term)	suasu (generic term)		unknown									See Language page
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	yawara	jawara (once used a generic term for felines?)		semantic shift		jaguar	Similar shift in many languages				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Not native; widespread	no
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna		yawara	jawara		semantic shift									See Language page
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis	yawara ka'apura	jawara ka'apura (jawara = carnivoro, ka'a=mata, pura=morador)		unique							Phrase	jawara = carnivor, feline, ka'a=forest, pura=dweller	See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae	pikaçu, (Columbidea) pumba (from POR)	pikasu (Columbidea) pumba (from POR)	Columbidea	inheritance			Also: pumba (from POR)				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family	ipekai	ipekai		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.	aí tapuru (species of parastic larva found in palm trees, etym: ai = laziness/sloth, tapuru = wormy)	aí tapuru (species of parastic larva found in palm trees, etym: ai = laziness, tapuru = wormy)		unknown							Compound	'sloth worm'	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus	puraké	puraké		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		yes
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae	kuisí (Mello 2003), gagaluna	kuisí (Mello 2003), gagaluna		loan - WW	Portuguese	%kukuj; Portuguese	Also: kuisí (Mello 2003)				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		pirá	pirá		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
fish (large type)	paiche, pirarucú o arapaima	pirarucu	flora-fauna	Arapaima gigas	pirá uruku	piɾá uɾuku		unknown							Compound	fish achiote'	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	big rivers only	no
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.	timbu, kunambi (flowwing plant, not a poisonous vine, but it is used as fish poison)	timbu, kunambi (flowwing plant, not a poisonous vine, but it is used as fish poison)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. Also: kunambi (plant, not vine)				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	yes [used to poison people]	shrub/tree
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	tumbira	tumbiɾa		unknown							No info		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana	jenipá	ʒenipá		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	1	0	0	0	0	widespread lowland SA	no	shrub
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis	yawakaká	jawakaká (jawara = carnivor, kaka = ?)		unknown							No info		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)	caápií	kaápií		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				Other complex	ka'a 'grass' pĩ ??	See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans	yakami	jakami		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões	no
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba	mãgwari (Ardea cocoi)	mãgwari (Ardea cocoi)	Ardea cocoi	inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread South America	no
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti	akuti waya (akuti=cutia, waya=rabo, doesn't match specfically, same genus)	akuti waya (akuti=cutia, waya=rabo, doesn't match specfically, same genus)		missing									See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.	yaku	jaku		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Different types have different localized ranges	no
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola													See Language page
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi				missing									See Language page	1	0	0	1	0	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	no	vine
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae	karipira, wirawasu (Mello 2000)	karipira, wirawasu (Mello 2000)	gavião real ('royal hawk')	unique							Other complex	bird-AUG	See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	iramayã, yandaira, pirayaira, irucu	iramajã, jandaira, pirajaira, irucu		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Mello 2003 reconstructs 'ira'. Also: yandaira, pirayaira, irucu			ira' = honey, bee	Compound	ira 'honey/bee' mãjã 'mother'	See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus				missing									See Language page	0	0	0	0	0
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens	kĩ ĩya, murupi	kĩ ĩja, murupi	Capsicum frutescens and Capsicum annum	inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. Also: murupi (Capsicum frutescens)				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	no	plant
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]	wariwa	wariwa		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	waynambi	wajnambi		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread	no
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.	kameleu	kameleu		loan		Portuguese					underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.	inga (family Mimosacea) (many other trees described by inga)	iŋga (family Mimosacea) (many other trees described with inga.		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)	no
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic				missing									See Language page	0	0	0	0	0
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	yawaɾaté, yawaɾate (yawara=felino, te,ete=legitimate)	jawaɾaté, jawaɾate (jawara=felino, te,ete=legitimate)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani	cf. Arawak, Tukanoan	Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				Other complex	jawara 'feline', -(e)te 'true'	See Language page	1	2	0	0	0		yes
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura	yapurá	yapurá	name of river; presumably also name of the tree	unknown							underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	large tree
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra	çamu'uma	samu'ua		unknown							No info		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	no	tree
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae	wariramba	wariramba		inheritance	Subgroup Apiaka						No info		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.	çaiuwa	saiuwa		unknown			Also: usaiwa				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.	arara	arara		loan into protolg? - WW	Proto-Tupi-Guarani	%arara	Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. There are several species of macaw that are classified by their color in Nheengatu. Example: arara cukiri translates to blue macaw.) araramiri (arara=macaw,miri=small) arara'I (Ara severa)				underived		See Language page	1	1	0	0	1	Widespread Amazonia	no
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	mílyu (from POR)	mílju (from POR)		loan		Portuguese	Also: auatí (awatí) Mello 2003 (inherited PTG)				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	no	plant
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.	iwarawá (G&F: Carib origin?) pirá tapi ira ('fish-tapir')	iwaɾawá (G&F: Carib origin?) pirá tapi ira ('fish-tapir')		unknown			G&F attribute to Carib, but similar term exists in Kokama. Also: pirá tapiʔira 'fish tapir/cow'				No info		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.	mandi'i	mandi'i		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	maniaka (Mello 2000)	maniaka (Mello 2000)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				Other complex	mani 'manioc' + oca	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	no	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	makaxera	makaxera		loan			Found Urubu-Kaapor, Asurini (with note saying a Port loan); other TG lgs have 'manioc-sweet'. Also found in Arawak. Could be a loan in TG, certainly a loan into other lgs.				No info		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	no	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa	miriti, turiyá (Mauritia esp.)	miriti, turijá (Mauritia esp.)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	no	trunks contain sago-like starch
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	karapanã	karapanã		doubtful loan, direction unknown		possibly from Carib; shared Kaapor-Tembe-Nheengatu	May be inherited (Kaapor-Tembe-Nheengatu)				No info		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera				missing									See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus	wawiru 'rat'	wawiru 'rat'	rat, mouse	unique							underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)				missing									See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no	prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis	bakúyari	bakújari		unknown							No info		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae	mikura	mikura		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes	kuruyá, murukututu (screech owl)	kurujá, murukututu (Screech owl)		unknown		%murukutu / kurukutu	Also: murukututu (screech owl found in South and Central America)				No info		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread	no
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)	paka	paka		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.	paku	paku		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana	karanã, kawayá	karanã, kawajá		unknown			Also: kawayá				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	no	palm
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica	kuriká, parawa'i (small parrot) weu (Amazona festiva)	kuriká; parawa'i (small parrot) weu (Amazona festiva)		loan - WW; doubtful loan - WW	Proto-Tupi-Guarani	%kuli; %awaro	Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	1	0	0	0	1	Widespread	no
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea	paxiʔiwa	paxiʔiwa		inheritance							Compound	iwa 'tree'	See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no	palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes	pupuya	pupuya	pupunha	inheritance			Arawak loan - %pipiri into Proto-Tupinamba-Omagua-Kokama?				underived		Grenand and Ferreira 1989: 266	2	1	0	0	0		no
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea				missing									See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus	nãnã, abakaxi	nãnã, abakaʃi		inheritance - WW	Subgroup Guarani		Also: nãnã				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae	piraya (pira=fish, ya,aya=tooth)	piɾaja (pira=fish, ya,aya=tooth)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				Other complex	pira=fish, ya'aya=tooth	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no [not in this region]
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae	kuãdú	kuãdú		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum				missing			Probably same as 'sweet potato'						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation	no	compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	batata, yutika (G&F: no longer widely used)	batata, jutika (G&F: no longer widely used)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Also: cará, batata (Pt loan). Grenand & Ferreira: yutika no longer widely used.				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae				missing									See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.	seringá	seringá		unknown							underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no	tree
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones	yararaká, rakraya	jararaká, rakraja	scorpion, venomous snake	semantic shift		from 'snake'	Mello (2003) reconstructs PTG *jawajɨr. Also: rakraya			scorpion, venemous snake	underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		yes
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua	patawá	patawá		unknown							underived		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia		may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.	ai	ai		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. Also: aiwasu ('royal sloth', lit. 'sloth-AUG')				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata	teyu (lagarto generico), teyumiri (small lizard, teju=lizard, miri=small, family Geckonideo)	teju (lagarto generico), tejumiri (small lizard, teju=lizard, miri=small, family Geckonideo)	lizard (generic)	inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda	uruá (generic term for water snails)	urua (generic term for water snails)	water snail	inheritance							underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		buya	buja		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox	yararaka (Bathrops atrox)	jararaka (Bothrops atrox)	Bothrops atrox; also scorpion	inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				No info		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread South America	yes
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.	çurubĩ	suɾubĩ		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae	yandu	jandu		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.	jirimũ	ʒirimũ		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae	akuti puru	akuti puru		inheritance		maybe 'jumping agouti'?					Phrase	akuti 'agouti', puru 'ornamented'	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.	yawawira	jawawira		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				No info	Probably complex	See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.	tayuba	tajuba		unknown							Phrase	taja 'plant sp.' + oba 'green'	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	tapi'ira ka'apura (tapirus terrestris) kaiwara (variant of the former)	tapi'ira ka'apura (tapirus terrestris), kaiwara (varient of the former)	tapirus terrestris	inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. Also: kaiwara				Phrase	tapir forest-dweller	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera	kupĩ ' ĩ, maniwara (mani=manioc, wara=eater)	kupĩ ' ĩ, maniwara (mani=manioc, wara=eater)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea	karapátu	karapátu		loan		Portuguese	Etymology reportedly from Pre-Romance caparra+ato				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.	tari'ira	tariʔira		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae	inambu (other species go by this name)	inambu (other species go by this name)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000			includes other species as well?	underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	yu'i (generic term, frog) aru (species of frog) kururu (type of frog, onomatopeia of cry), pakará (Leptodactilideo) mawá (Leptodactylus pentadactylus)	ju'i (generic term, frog) aru (species of frog), kururu (type of frog, onomatopeia of cry) pakará (Leptodactilideo), mawá (Leptodactylus pentadactylus)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000.				underived		See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum	baruri	baɾuɾi		unknown	Proto-Tupi-Guarani	Mello gives pitima (inheritance)	Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. Also: baɾuɾi				underived		See Language page	1	0	0	0	1		no	plant
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	yauti (yellow footed), karumbé (red footed), jurara majã (giant tortoise, jurara=tartaruga, maja=mae)	jauti (yellow footed) karumbé (red footed), jurara majã (giant tortoise, jurara=tartaruga, maja=mae)	yellow-footed tortoise	inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. karumbé (red footed), jurara majã (giant tortoise, jurara=tartaruga, maja=mae)				underived		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Widespread	no
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.	tukana	tukana		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		mirá (possible generic term) iwa (morpheme meaning tree, used in compound words)	mira (possible generic term) iwa (morpheme meaning tree, used in compound words)		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000. Also: iwa (mainly used in compounds)				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella				missing									See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui	ukuki	ukuki		unknown							underived		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	no	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae	urubu	urubu		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread South America	no
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita	kawa	kawa		inheritance			Probably inherited; Loan INTO Port.; FERREIRA, A. B. H. Novo Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa. Segunda edição. Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 1986. p.299				underived		See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons	kai arara	kai arara		unknown			Lit. 'parrot monkey'				Compound	kai 'monkey' arara 'parrot'	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus	makaka pixuna	makaka piʃuna		loan		Portuguese 'macaco' + TG 'black'					Phrase	monkey' + 'black'	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari	tayaçu ka'apura	tayasu kaʔapura		inheritance	Proto-Tupi-Guarani		Reconstructed PTG Mello 2000				Phrase	peccary forest-dweller	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae	arapáçu	aɾapásu		inheritance	Subgroup Urubu-Kaapor		Mello 2000				underived		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no

Showing 1 to 138 of 138 entries

Cultural Vocabulary (106)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	takaná, uiwa	takaná, uiwa		unique; inheritance	*uʔɨß	Proto-Tupi-Guarani	cf. Apalai takɨ			Alternate: takaná	Simplex		hunting, warfare	See Language page
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	ji	ʒi		inheritance	*jɨ	Proto-Tupi-Guarani					Simplex		especially for clearing fields	See Language page
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool	pinaputawa	pinaputawa		inheritance							Compound	contanis pina 'fish'	can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material	bapa (Cruz 2011)	bapa (Cruz 2011)		unknown										See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	balaiu			Doubtful loan			Portuguese			Probably of Port origin, but could it have originated in Tupi-Guarani?	Simplex			See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	balaiu (basket, C11), panakú, waturá (other basket types)	balaiu (basket, C11), panakú, waturá (other basket types)		loan; doubtful loan into protolg, direction unknown - WW; doubtful loan into protolg, direction unknown - WW			Arawak walaja; %panaku; %atura							See Language page
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material	balaiu (basket, C11), panakú, waturá (other basket types)		cesto de costas entrançado com folhas de bacabeira ou de acai	inheritance	*panakũ	Proto-Tupi-Guarani					Simplex			See Language page
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material	puira	puira		inheritance?							Simplex			See Language page
bed	cama	cama	culture-material				missing										See Language page
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	apicáwa	apikáwa		inheritance			from 'sit'							See Language page
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool	çarauatana	sarawatana		loan			Portuguese						currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool				missing										See Language page
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation				missing										See Language page
bottom grinding stone			manufacture				missing									if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	mirapara	mirapara		inheritance	*ɨßɨrapar	Proto-Tupi-Guarani				Loan TG > Yucuna wiɾaʔapaɾa			arco	See Language page
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material	tapixawa (Casas2000)	tapixawa (Casas2000)		inheritance			cf. Quechua piʃana							See Language page
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	igara (canoe); uba (C11)	igara (canoe); uba (C11)		inheritance	*ɨar	Proto-Tupi-Guarani				Alternate: uba	Simplex			See Language page
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	pixana (Casas2000)	piʃana (Casas2000)		loan - WW			%pisana	WW	%pisana	Via Nheengatu into: Tariana pisána, Makushi pisana; Pemon pitʃana; Hup picana; Tukanoan E. family (eg: Wanano pisana)	Simplex			See Language page
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	sapukaya (Casas2000)	sapukaja (Casas2000)		semantic shift			from 'cry, call' (Nordenskiold 1922:28)			Similar term 'sapukana' means 'hawk' in Surui do Tocantins (Mello 2000); compare also 'kakara' terms for 'hawk' in another TG language (Auwá?) that resemble other 'chicken' Wanderwörter; nordenskiold 1922, citing rodriguez, says this comes from verb 'call				See Language page
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	tuxawa (Casas2000); kapitão (C11, Port loan)	tuʃawa (Casas2000); kapitão (C11, Port loan)		WW; loan			%tuʃawa; Portuguese			Donor: Pemon tusawa, etc.; Alternate: kapitão	Simplex			See Language page
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	axirura	aʃiɾuɾa		inheritance - WW			%sarur							See Language page
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool				missing										See Language page
coca			narcotics	ipadu			Loan			Arawak or Tukano	WW	%patu	Arawak (e.g. Tariana hipatú); Carijona ihatu; E. Tukano (e.g. Bará 'pátu); Daw	Simplex			See Language page
cook food			food	memũi			Inheritance	*mimoin	Proto-Tupi-Guarani					Simplex			See Language page
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology	Kurupira (C11)	Kurupira (C11)		inheritance						Also attested Ka'apor			malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page
dance (generic)			culture-mythology	purasi			Inheritance	*poratsej	Proto-Tupi-Guarani					Simplex		Schleicher 1998 reconstructs	See Language page
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool				missing									hunting and warfare	See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology	tupã (old word used to describe spirits causing thunder, but chosen later to describe Christian God.)	tupã (old word used to describe spirits causing thunder, but chosen later to describe Christian God.)		inheritance	*tupã					Reconstructs as 'thunder', but has both meanings in many TG languages; donor for Yucuna tupana, Kaingang topẽ;	Simplex		In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool				Missing										See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool				missing										See Language page
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	ikerpi, kerupi (Casas2000)	ikerpi, kerupi (Casas2000)		unknown						Alternate: kerupi	Simplex			See Language page
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology	tamburina (loan POR)	tamburina (loan POR)		loan			Portuguese	WW	%tamburina	Baniwa tamoɻína; Yavitero tam'buru; Akawaio sambura; Pemon sambura; Wai Wai samaΦora; Northern Emberá thãmbura; Jivaro (e.g. Huambisa tampur); Cubeo tɛ̃mulibʉ; Ninam tambor;	Simplex			See Language page
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture				missing									Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool	tapekwá	tapekwá		inheritance									esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology	kangatara, akangatara (headdress, headband; Casas2000)	kangatara, akangatara (headdress, headband; Casas2000)		unknown						Also: akangatara				See Language page
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other	kurara	kurara		loan			Arawak or Spanish/Portuguese	WW	%kurara	Nheengatu as likely donor into Arawak (e.g. Wapishana kʰurara); Baniwa koɻáaɻa; Nheengatu kurara; Northern Emberá korrá	Simplex		may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture	kaxiri (Cruz: not a Tupi term), kaiçuma (fermented manioc), tikira	kaʃiri (Cruz: not a Tupi term); kaisuma (fermented manioc), tikira		loan; inheritance?; unknown			Carib						prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology	puçanga	pusanga		inheritance	*potsaŋ					Donor: Portuguese puçanga; Other TG?: Ashuar pusaŋ	Simplex			See Language page
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other				missing										See Language page
firewood	leña	lenha	other	yepeawa	jepeawa		inheritance						Mello 2000 gives 'japeawa' as reflex of protoform *japeaßa	Simplex			See Language page
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food	timiari (Casas2000)	timiari (Casas2000)		unique			from 'timbo'			Also: mukau. Possible donor to Eñepa -tïmï-	Simplex			See Language page
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	pinaitika (pina=hook, tika=shake, tremble)	pinaitika (pina=hook, tika=shake, tremble)		inheritance	*pinaetɨk						Derived	pina=hook, tika=shake, tremble		See Language page
fish poison	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	subsistence tool	timbu		a general term for various plant species used as fish poison	Inheritance	*timo	Proto-Tupi-Guarani				Alternate: kunambi. Donor: Portuguese timbó; Other TG?: Candoshi tĩmó; Jivaro family timu	Simplex			See Language page
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool	pina xama (pina=fish, xama=cord)	pina ʃama (pina=fish, ʃama=cord)		unknown							Compound	pina=fish, ʃama=cord		See Language page
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool	matapi, kakuri, paitika, piçá (fish net)	matapi, kakuri, paitika, pisá (fish net)		unknown			Local	WW	%kakuli	Yavitero ka'kul'i; Baniwa kákoli; Sikuani kakuli; Arawak or Nheengatu source?	Simplex			See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food	meyu (beiju in general); kurada (beiju made from tapioca)	meju (beiju in general); kurada (beiju made from tapioca)		inheritance	*meju					possible donor to Portuguese beiju; Resígaɾo maaʔmú; Waimiri Atroari meie; Guayabero meyne	Simplex		usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food	uĩ; (also: karuera, farofa [loan from POR])	uĩ, karuera, farofa (loan from POR)		inheritance	*maniʔok		Mello: *uʔi-			Also ʔui, shared in . Possible donor for Yucuna uʔuwí; Makushi ùʔwí [Alternate: karuera, farofa]	Phrase	mani + oka 'white'	agriculture	See Language page
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology	membi (Casas2000)	membi (Casas2000)		inheritance	*mimɨ						Simplex		multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food	suu (C11)	su: (C11)		semantic shift		Within subgroup?	from 'bite'			From 'meat'	Simplex		Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page
genipap			culture-mythology	ʒenipá			Inheritance	*janɨpaß	Proto-Tupi-Guarani				Portuguese genipapo; Spanish genipapa	Simplex			See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	mira angá (mira=forest, anga=spirit); urupari (old expression, redefined to mean Christian devil, "Um mau espirito da mata para os Indios tupi, assimilado mais tarde ao Deus dos Indios tucanos), angá, yurupari (from Christian demon?)	mira aŋgá (mira=forest, anga=spirit); urupari (old expression, redefined to mean Christian devil, "Um mau espirito da mata para os Indios tupi, assimilado mais tarde ao Deus dos Indios tucanos) aŋgá (in dictionary, it is listed under both soul and spirit)		inheritance										See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	kuya (C11)	kuja (C11)		inheritance	*kuja		%kuja			donor for Portuguese cuia; Yucuna kujeɾa; Baniwa kóoja	Simplex			See Language page
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool	iwise (Mello2000)	iwise (Mello2000)		inheritance	*ɨßetsẽ					Also ißesẽ (Mello 2000)	Simplex		esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool	jurá (M2003), mita (C11)	jurá (M2003), mita (C11)		inheritance; unknown						possible donor for Paresi ma'tjai; Yagua muta	Simplex			See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool	yapuna (Casas2000)	japuna (Casas2000)		inheritance	*meju	Subgroup?					Simplex		agriculture?	See Language page
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	muka (C11)	muka (C11)		WW			%mukawa				Simplex			See Language page
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	makira	makira		doubtful loan			North Arawak	WW	%amaka	Distinct from other TG forms. Occurs in Arawak, Macaguan, Kakua (?), Urarina (?), Aguaruna. Taylor 9157 argues that origin is in Arawak 'sleep-NMLZ'				See Language page
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress				missing										See Language page
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology	pajé; mutawariçawa (mutawar=smoke blower, sawa=nominalizer)	paʒé; mutawaɾasa (mutawar=smoke blower, sawa=nominalizer)		inheritance									Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics	kuxu, kuruata	kuʃu, kuruata		unknown						Alternate: kuruata	Simplex			See Language page
honey	miel	mel	food	ira (Mello2000)	ira (Mello2000)		inheritance	*eir-	Proto-Tupi-Guarani					Simplex		only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page
house			other	uka	uka		inheritance										See Language page
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	kasai (C11)	kasai (C11)		doubtful loan			Portuguese				Simplex			See Language page
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	kicé; kicemiri (kise = knife, miri = small)	kisé, kisemiri (kise = knife, miri = small)		inheritance						kise' part is inherited	Phrase	kise=knife; miri=small		See Language page
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress	cuêio	kwejo		Missing										See Language page
machete	machete	facão	culture-material	kicé	kisé		semantic shift	*kitʃe	Proto-Tupi-Guarani	knife'				Simplex			See Language page
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool	induá	induá		inheritance	*ɨnuʔa						Simplex			See Language page
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	aputiká	aputiká		inheritance										See Language page
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology														See Language page
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology	pindaiwa	pindaiwa		unknown										See Language page
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	papera (Port loan, C11)	papera (Port loan, C11)		loan			Span/Port 'papel'	WW	%papera	Spanish/Portuguese > Nheengatu > others? Ninam liplo (metathesis); Arawak (e.g. Yucuna papera); Macaguan papéna; Tukanoan (Cubeo papela, Wanano papera pû, Tukano papéra); Nheengatu papera; Yanomam, papʰeo	Simplex			See Language page
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool	çukári, çuçuka (possible verb)	sukári, susuka (possible? verb)		unknown						Alternate: susuka (possible? verb)				See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other				Missing										See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other				missing										See Language page
plate	plato	prato	culture-material	parátu	parátu		loan			Portuguese			see also Arawak (e..g Yucuna paɾatú); Carib (e.g. Makushi pɨratu); Jivaro (e.g. Aguaruna parátu); Hup padatu=b'ɔk	Simplex			See Language page
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation				missing										See Language page
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	turuá	tuɾuá		loan, direction unknown			att. Warekena, Waimiri-Atroari			Donor: Waimiri Atroari tɨruwa	Simplex			See Language page
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology	maracá	maraká		loan (into protolg?), direction unknown			Carib maraka							See Language page
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool	icika	isika		inheritance		Subgroup or higher					Simplex			See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	upaçama (cf. xama), tupaçama	upasama (cf. ʃama), tupasama		inheritance										See Language page
salt	sal	sal	food	yukira (C11)	jukira (C11)		inheritance - WW	*jukɨr	Proto-Tupi-Guarani				Donor: Yucuna jukiɾa; Nadeb RN juki:ɾ; Cubeo jukila, etc.	Simplex			See Language page
school	escuela	escola	acculturation	iskola (Port loan; C11)	iskola (Port loan; C11)		loan			Portuguese			also Akawaio skur; Yanomam eskuera	Simplex			See Language page
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology	pajé; mutawariçawa (mutawar=smoke blower, sawa=nominalizer), puçangaçawa (pusaŋga=remedio, sawa = que tem o habito de)	paʒé; mutawaɾasa (mutawar=smoke blower, sawa=nominalizer) pusaŋgasawa (pusaŋga=remedio, sawa = que tem o habito de)		inheritance; unique	*paje					possible donor for Bará bahe'-gɨ́; Alternate: mutawaɾasa, pusaŋgasawa	Simplex		In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress				missing										See Language page
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material	çaya	saja		loan			Port/Span saia	WW	%saja	Port > Nheengatu > others? Arawak (e.g. Baniwa tsʰaaja); Makushi u-saja-ri; Wanano saya si; Nheengatu saja; Ninam saja	Simplex			See Language page
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation	surara (C11)	surara (C11)		loan - WW			%surara	WW	%surara	Port source; also in Arawak, Carib, East Tukanoan, Yanomamo. Nheengatu surara; Makushi surara; Hup sudadu; East Tukanoan (e.g. Cubeo ʈʃulala); Ninam sotatu	Simplex			See Language page
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology	nheenga (sing, v.; C11; nheenga=language/speech)	ñeengari (sing, v.; ñeenga=language/speech)		unknown							Other complex	sing, v.; ñeenga=language/speech		See Language page
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool				missing										See Language page
spearthrower			subsistence tool				missing										See Language page
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food	tipiaka	tipiaka		inheritance		Proto-Tupi-Guarani					Simplex			See Language page
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material				missing										See Language page
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	kana (sugar cane; Casas2000)	kana (sugar cane; Casas2000)		loan			Portuguese				Simplex			See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food	mingau	mingau		inheritance?		Proto-Tupi-Guarani					Simplex		agriculture	See Language page
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material	apé, karanã, kawayá	apé, karanã, kawayá		unknown							Simplex			See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food	tipiti (de tipi=fundo)	tipiti (de tipi=fundo)		inheritance	*tepiti					Donor: Spanish/Portuguese tipiti; Ticuna tipiti; Iquito tipiití	Simplex		word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page
tobacco (native)			narcotics	baruri			Unknown						Also pitima, inherited from Proto-TG (Mello 2000)				See Language page
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture				missing									use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool	çuaçu	suasu		Calque			East Tukanoan?			Same form for 'tripod' and 'deer', as found throughout the Vaupes region	Simplex		agriculture	See Language page
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool	wirari	wirari		doubtful loan - WW			%wirari			Also occurs in Kokama; but also in Akawaio (Carib), possibly a loan into TG?	Simplex		hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page
wax	cera	cera	other	irawaçawa	irawaʃawa		unique							Other complex	ira 'honey' + çawa 'emphasis'		See Language page
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	urupema, urupema ceçá pui, bati (used to strain liquids) kumatá (used for washing manioc meal)	uɾupema (used for sifting manioc flour) uɾupema sesá pui, bati (used to strain liquids) kumatá (used for washing manioc meal)	strainer used for sifting manioc flour	inheritance	*urupema					possible donor for Baniwa oɻopéma; Alternate: uɾupema sesá pui, bati (used to strain liquids) kumatá (used for washing manioc meal)	Simplex		agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology	Yurupari	Jurupari	evil forest spirit	unknown									a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page

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Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source	General Notes
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	yes		Cruz 2011:255-257
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no info		Cruz 2011
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	yes		Cruz 2011:429
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no info		Cruz 2011
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes		Cruz 2011:438
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no		Cruz 2011
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Cruz 2011
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	no	a lot of grammatical information expressed by clitics and particles	Cruz 2011
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Cruz 2011
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	no		Cruz 2011
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	yes	a lot of grammatical information expressed by clitics and particles	Cruz 2011
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	yes		Cruz 2011:74, 308
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	yes		Cruz 2011:308
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	no		Cruz 2011:
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no info		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	no		Cruz 2011:412-420
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	10	postpositions	Cruz 2011:197
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no	beneficiaries/recepients marked by posposition	Cruz 2011	two types of dative markers: one for interlocutors and another for intralocutors
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	yes		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Cruz 2011:
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	yes		Cruz 2011:214
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no		Cruz 2011:262
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	yes		Cruz 2011:265
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	no		Cruz 2011:141
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Cruz 2011:133-134
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	2	proximal - distal	Cruz 2011:146
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no		Cruz 2011:146
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	0		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	no	no gender distinction	Cruz 2011:146
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no	no classifiers	Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no info	very few examples of numbers. There don't seem to be num. class	Cruz 2011:165
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no		Cruz 2011:164
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		yes	examples indicate that plural can mark inanimates (itá ita - rocks)	Cruz 2011:377
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no		Cruz 2011:147
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no info		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no		Cruz 2011:262
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	yes		Cruz 2011:262
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no info		Cruz 2011:262
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no info		Cruz 2011:262
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no info		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no info	speakers tend to use the Portuguese loan words	Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no info		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes	perfective particle can be cliticized to noun	Cruz 2011:463
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		no		Cruz 2011:146
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no		Cruz 2011:146
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Cruz 2011:141
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Cruz 2011:141 - 145
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no	reflexive prefix on verb	Cruz 2011:294
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	no		Cruz 2011:194
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	yes		Cruz 2011:247
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes		Cruz 2011:252
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	no info		Cruz 2011
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	yes		Cruz 2011:382
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes		Cruz 2011:156
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Cruz 2011
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no		Cruz 2011:156
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes		Cruz 2011:156
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no		Cruz 2011:156
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	yes	inalienable possession must have possessive prefix	Cruz 2011:156
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no	inalienable possession must have possessive prefix	Cruz 2011:156
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	yes	inalienable possession must have possessive prefix	Cruz 2011:156
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	yes		Cruz 2011:156
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	yes		Cruz 2011:156
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Cruz 2011:156
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no		Cruz 2011:47
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Cruz 2011:34
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no		Cruz 2011:34
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	no		Cruz 2011:34
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Cruz 2011:34
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Cruz 2011:62
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	yes	only glides allowed	Cruz 2011:62
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Cruz 2011:62
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no		Cruz 2011
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	yes	found an example on page 378 (itá - rock, ita - PL particle)	Cruz 2011:378
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no		Cruz 2011
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no		Cruz 2011
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no info	not many phonological processes described	Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	no	no core NP marking	Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no	no core NP marking	Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no	no core NP marking	Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no	no core NP marking	Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no	no core NP marking	Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		no	pronouns don't mark case	Cruz 2011:141
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no	pronouns don't mark case	Cruz 2011:141
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no	pronouns don't mark case	Cruz 2011:141
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no	pronouns don't mark case	Cruz 2011:141
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no	pronouns don't mark case	Cruz 2011:141
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	no		Cruz 2011:133-134
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Cruz 2011:133-134
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		yes		Cruz 2011:133-134
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no info		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no info		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	yes		Cruz 2011:343
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	yes		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	yes		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	yes	proclitic	Cruz 2011:406
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no info		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no info		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	no
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	yes		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	yes		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes		Cruz 2011:141
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes		Cruz 2011:133-134
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Cruz 2011:133-134
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Cruz 2011:133-134
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Cruz 2011:133-134
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	yes		Cruz 2011:133-134
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes		Cruz 2011:133-134
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes		Cruz 2011:133-134
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	no info		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	no		Cruz 2011:133-134
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	yes	dative particle following beneficiary	Cruz 2011:421
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no		Cruz 2011:421
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no info		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	yes	prefix	Cruz 2011:294
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no info		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	no		Cruz 2011
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	yes		Cruz 2011:287
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	no		Cruz 2011:287
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Cruz 2011:287
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	no		Cruz 2011:287
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no info		Cruz 2011:287
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no info		Cruz 2011:287
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no		Cruz 2011:287
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	no	according to author, no TAM markers in Nheengatu (footnote pg. 36)	Cruz 2011:36
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no	according to author, no TAM markers in Nheengatu (footnote pg. 36)	Cruz 2011:36
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no	according to author, no TAM markers in Nheengatu (footnote pg. 36)	Cruz 2011:36
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		no	according to author, no TAM markers in Nheengatu (footnote pg. 36)	Cruz 2011:36
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no	according to author, no TAM markers in Nheengatu (footnote pg. 36)	Cruz 2011:36
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		no	according to author, no TAM markers in Nheengatu (footnote pg. 36)	Cruz 2011:36
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no	according to author, no TAM markers in Nheengatu (footnote pg. 36)	Cruz 2011:36
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no info		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	yes	particle	Cruz 2011:349
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no info		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		yes		Cruz 2011:349
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	yes		Cruz 2011:406-408
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no		Cruz 2011:406-408
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no		Cruz 2011:358
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		yes	particle, borrowing from Portuguese	Cruz 2011:361
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no		Cruz 2011:358
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no		Cruz 2011:349
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		yes	particle	Cruz 2011:349
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no		Cruz 2011:349
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no info		Cruz 2011:358
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	no info		Cruz 2011:358
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	yes	particle	Cruz 2011:373
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no info		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no		Cruz 2011
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no		Cruz 2011
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		yes	SVO is more frequent, but VS and OV also occur	Cruz 2011:412
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no	SV seems to occur more commonly	Cruz 2011:425
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		yes		Cruz 2011:417
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	yes		Cruz 2011:417
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no		Cruz 2011:417
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Cruz 2011
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Cruz 2011:196
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes		Cruz 2011:259
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no		Cruz 2011:259
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	no		Cruz 2011
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	no		Cruz 2011
Word Order	Demonstrative-Noun		yes		Cruz 2011:259
Word Order	Noun-Demonstrative		no		Cruz 2011:259
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes		Cruz 2011:266
Word Order	Noun-Num		no		Cruz 2011:266
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes		Cruz 2011:510
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Cruz 2011:510
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	yes		Cruz 2011:510
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Cruz 2011:510
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	no		Cruz 2011:348

Showing 1 to 226 of 226 entries

Ethnographic Information

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Current Population (speakers)	Former Population Estimate	Subsistence Preference	Density	Sedentism	Ecotome	Marriage Pattern	Notes	Source
8000	large	AG	dense	sedentary	Riverine		exclusively the product of language shift

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