Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Wapishana

Family: Arawakan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: wap
Location: 2.59°, -59.80°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information

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Data Sources: dos Santos, Manoel Gomes. 2006. Uma Gramática do Wapixana (Aruák) – Aspectos da Fonologia, da Morfologia e da Sintaxe. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. Campinas, SP: Univ. xviii+280pp. (Doctoral disseration). Tracy, Frances V. and Melville, Colette and Williams, Olive. 2000. Wapishana. South American Indian Languages, Computer Database (Intercontinental Series, vol. 1) General Editor Mary-Ritchie Key. Irvine: University of California.

Basic Vocabulary (191)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar			missing			See Language page
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	waɨnau	waɨnau	inheritance	Proto North Arawak	no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted	See Language page
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	ũgar-ɨ	ũgar-ɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?	For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms	See Language page
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	ɨnau	ɨnau	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	pʰɨgar-ɨ	pʰɨgar-ɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	ɨnau	ɨnau	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	ɨrɨɨ; uruu	ɨrɨɨ; uruu	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?		See Language page
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	dukʰu ii	dukʰu ii	unique			See Language page
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar	kʰušan	kʰušan	unknown			See Language page
all	todo	todos	other	baukup	baukup	unknown			See Language page
and	y	e	grammar	naʔik	naʔik	unknown			See Language page
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body	[-]ˀbaruriʔi	[-]ˀbaruriʔi	unknown	Some similarity to Carib (e.g. Eñepa paraʔmu), but borrowing seems unlikely		See Language page
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body	kiʃap	kiʃap	unknown	Possibly inheritance		See Language page
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	paɽitiʔi	paɽitiʔi	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
at	en, a	em, a	location	i:	i:	unknown			See Language page
back	espalda	costas	body	baɽai	baɽai	unknown			See Language page
bad	mal	mal	quality	idikʰaɨda	idikʰaɨda	inheritance			See Language page
bark	corteza	casca	environment	atʰamɨnɨ mada	atʰamɨnɨ mada	inheritance			See Language page
belly	barriga	barriga	body	-tʰuˀba	-tʰuˀba	Doubtful loan, direction unknown	Compare Cofán thopa		See Language page
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location	[-]waranɨ ii	[-]waranɨ ii	unknown			See Language page
big	grande	grande	quality	ɨdarɨ; tɨbarɨ	ɨdarɨ; tɨbarɨ	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
bite	morder	morder	body	arutʰa-n	arutʰa-n	unique			See Language page
black	negro	preto	colour	pʰudidi-ʔu	pʰudidi-ʔu	Doubtful loan	Carib, esp. Eñepa ti-puru-ke		See Language page
blood	sangre	sangue	body	iẓai	iẓai	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
blow	soplar	soprar	body	pʰuutʰa-n	pʰuutʰa-n	unknown	Onomatopoeic		See Language page
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body	-ˀbaišin	-ˀbaišin	unique			See Language page
bone	hueso	osso	body	niwaʔɨ	niwaʔɨ	unique			See Language page
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	-ˀdɨn	-ˀdɨn	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	[-]niẓuwa-n	[-]niẓuwa-n	unique			See Language page
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	kʰaʔauˀda-n	kʰaʔauˀda-n	inheritance?			See Language page
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body	šumaɨa-n	šumaɨa-n	unique			See Language page
child	niño, niña	criança	human	kuraiˀdaunaa	kuraiˀdaunaa	unknown			See Language page
climb	subir	subir	motion	ẓaida-n	ẓaida-n	unique			See Language page
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment	[-]waranɨ ii	[-]waranɨ ii	unknown			See Language page
cold	frío	frio	quality	wadidi-ʔu	wadidi-ʔu	inheritance			See Language page
come	venir	vir	motion	waʔatin	waʔatin	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?		See Language page
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	warakʰa-n	warakʰa-n	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?		See Language page
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality	miʃu	miʃu	unknown			See Language page
count	contar	contar	mental	aitan	aitan	unique			See Language page
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	ẓaada-n	ẓaada-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	čʰuuta-n	čʰuuta-n	unknown	Possibly inheritance		See Language page
day	día	dia	time	wakʰandan; kʰanda-ʔu	wakʰandan; kʰanda-ʔu	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Yanomami wakara		See Language page
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	mauwakʰa-n	mauwakʰa-n	unique			See Language page
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	kʰičʰada-n	kʰičʰada-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
dingo/wolf			fauna			missing			See Language page
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	kaniɽibaʔu	kaniɽibaʔu	inheritance			See Language page
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	kʰa-ẓanˀdaʔautʰ-ĩĩa-n	kʰa-ẓanˀdaʔautʰ-ĩĩa-n	unknown			See Language page
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	tʰɨẓa-n	tʰɨẓa-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
dry	seco	seco	quality	arada-ʔu	arada-ʔu	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Wayana ahalap		See Language page
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality	manɨna-ʔu	manɨna-ʔu	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
dust	polvo	poeira	environment	ɨnɨˀba	ɨnɨˀba	unique			See Language page
ear	oreja	orelha	body	-tʰaini	-tʰaini	inheritance			See Language page
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	imiʔi	imiʔi	unique			See Language page
eat	comer	comer	body	aruupʰa-n	aruupʰa-n	unique			See Language page
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	kʰɨrɨkʰɨ dani ('chicken egg')	kʰɨrɨkʰɨ dani	unknown			See Language page
eye	ojo	olho	body	-awɨn	-awɨn	unknown	Possibly inheritance		See Language page
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body	ɖik	ɖik	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
fall	caer	cair	motion	wautʰa-n	wautʰa-n	inheritance?			See Language page
far	lejos	longe	quality	mɨnap	mɨnap	unique			See Language page
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	kʰiwinii	kʰiwinii	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Carib; Makushi kaiwan, Mapoyo kauri		See Language page
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	-ˀdarɨ	-ˀdarɨ	loan, direction unknown	Warao dani		See Language page
fear	miedo	medo	mental	taɽian (be scared, have fear)	taɽian (be scared, have fear)	doubtful loan	Carib, e.g. Waimiri-Atroari teneriki		See Language page
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	-iˀdi	-iˀdi	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
fingernail	uña	unha	body	-ˀbaẓi	-ˀbaẓi	inheritance?			See Language page
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	tʰikʰaẓi	tʰikʰaẓi	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
flow	fluir	fluir	motion	ẓiutʰa-n	ẓiutʰa-n	unknown			See Language page
flower	flor	flor	environment	[-]suusu	[-]suusu	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
fly	volar	voar	motion	ẓɨɨtʰa-n	ẓɨɨtʰa-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment	amaẓaˀda šan	amaẓaˀda šan	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
foot	pie	pé	body	-kʰiˀdiˀba	-kʰiˀdiˀba	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	akaj	akaj	inheritance			See Language page
good	bueno	bom	quality	kʰaiman	kʰaiman	inheritance			See Language page
green	verde	verde	quality	kʰuʔuri-ʔu	kʰuʔuri-ʔu	inheritance			See Language page
grow	crecer	crescer	state	dyaɨpʰai-n	dyaɨpʰai-n	unknown			See Language page
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	-ẓuwaɨ-ˀdi 'head-hair'	-ẓuwaɨ-ˀdi 'head-hair'	unknown			See Language page
hand	mano	mão	body	-kʰaʔɨ	-kʰaʔɨ	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	-ẓuwaɨ	-ẓuwaɨ	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	aˀbatʰa-n	aˀbatʰa-n	inheritance	see Guajiro		See Language page
heart	corazón	coração	body	-nyɨkʰɨnɨɨ	njɨkʰɨnɨɨ	inheritance			See Language page
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	kimiʃaʔu	kimiʃaʔu	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?		See Language page
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	diẓa-n	diẓa-n	unique			See Language page
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	ʐuitʃ	ʐuitʃ	unique			See Language page
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	ʐamt	ʐamt	unknown			See Language page
hot	caliente	quente	quality	wičʰa-ʔu	witʃʰa-ʔu	inheritance			See Language page
how?	como	como	grammar	naʔapam	naʔapam	unique			See Language page
if	si	se	grammar	paɨgaɽɨ	paɨgaɽɨ	unknown			See Language page
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	uwɨʔ	uwɨʔ	unique			See Language page
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	[-]ukʰuru	[-]ukʰuru	unique			See Language page
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body	ˀdawɨ-n	ˀdawɨ-n	unknown			See Language page
kill	matar	matar	impact	ẓuwia-n	ẓuwia-n	unique			See Language page
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	aitʰapʰa-n	aitʰapʰa-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
lake	lago	lago	environment	kaɽiʃi:	kaɽiʃi:	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
laugh	reír	rir	mental	ʃaʐutan	ʃaʐutan	inheritance			See Language page
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	anaˀba	anaˀba	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	ašaˀbaru	ašaˀbaru	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?		See Language page
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	tabaɨj	tabaɨj	unique			See Language page
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	waʐti	waʐti	unique			See Language page
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	tʰuruwanarɨ pʰiẓuwa-n	tʰuruwanarɨ pʰiẓuwa-n	semantic shift	thunder		See Language page
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body	kakɨp (viver), maʃaʔap (morar)	kakɨp (viver), maʃaʔap (morar)	unknown			See Language page
liver	hígado	figado	body	-kʰɨˀbaa	-kʰɨˀbaa	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	ɖawɨʔau	ɖawɨʔau	unknown			See Language page
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	nai	nai	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	order Phtiraptera	See Language page
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	[-]šiin	[-]šiin	unique			See Language page
man/male	hombre	homem	human	ˀdaunaiura	ˀdaunaiura	doubtful loan	Carib: Makiritare danwa, Makushi warayoʔ		See Language page
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	ˀdɨnaa	ˀdɨnaa	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
moon	luna	lua	environment	kʰaɨẓ	kʰaɨẓ	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	-ˀdaru	-ˀdaru	doubtful loan	Carib; Pemon dan, Makiritare denɨ		See Language page
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	miˀdɨkʰɨu; nawaẓi	miˀdɨkʰɨu; nawaẓi	unknown; unknown			See Language page
mouth	boca	boca	body	-ˀdakʰu	-ˀdakʰu	inheritance			See Language page
name	nombre	nome	human	ɨɨ	ɨɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body	ɖinaj	ɖinaj	unknown			See Language page
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	maunapʰa	maunapʰa	doubtful loan	Carib; Pemon mare, Yukpa mana, but cf. Warekena		See Language page
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	kanaɨ	kanaɨ	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
new	nuevo	novo	quality	pʰaʔina-ʔu	pʰaʔina-ʔu	unique			See Language page
night	noche	noite	time	wamarɨtʰan; marɨtʰa-ʔu	wamarɨtʰan; marɨtʰa-ʔu	unique			See Language page
no/not	no	não	grammar	auna:	auna:	unique			See Language page
nose	nariz	nariz	body	-iˀdiˀba	-iˀdiˀba	unique			See Language page
old	viejo	velho	quality	ẓaam	ẓaam	doubtful loan	Carib, e.g. Makiritare inʃomo 'old one'		See Language page
one	uno	um	number	ˀbaɨdaʔapʰa	ˀbaɨdaʔapʰa	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	daʔatʰa-n	daʔatʰa-n	unique			See Language page
other	otro	outro	grammar			missing			See Language page
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body	rinai	rinai	unique			See Language page
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	pʰiˀdan	pʰiˀdan	unique			See Language page
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	tʰinikʰa-n	tʰinikʰa-n	unknown			See Language page
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	wɨnɨ	wɨnɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
red	rojo	vermelho	colour	wɨẓa-ʔu	wɨẓa-ʔu	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body	diwaʔura	diwaʔura	unique			See Language page
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	dɨnapʰu-saˀba	dɨnapʰu-saˀba	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
root	raíz	raiz	flora	ištʰaˀbaʔɨ	iʃtʰaˀbaʔɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?		See Language page
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	dyɨpʰɨša-ʔu	dyɨpʰɨša-ʔu	unknown			See Language page
sand	arena	areia	environment	kʰatʰɨ	kʰatʰɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
say	decir	dizer	mental	kʰia-n	kʰia-n	unknown			See Language page
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact	kɨzɨt	kɨzɨt	unique			See Language page
see	ver	ver	mental	tʰɨkʰapʰa-n	tʰɨkʰapʰa-n	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	ɖimana	ɖimana	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	baʔi	baʔi	unknown			See Language page
short	corto	curto	quality	madiwaɨ	madiwaɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	wauɖaj	wauɖaj	unknown			See Language page
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental	kʰa-kʰiˀbaʔaẓunau-ʔu	kʰa-kʰiˀbaʔaẓunau-ʔu	inheritance			See Language page
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	sakantan	sakantan	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
skin	piel	pele	body	maˀda	maˀda	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
sky	cielo	céu	environment	aukaʐ	aukaʐ	unique			See Language page
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	ˀdaʔawɨ-n	ˀdaʔawɨ-n	unique			See Language page
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	kʰaikʰapʰasudi-ʔu	kʰaikʰapʰasudi-ʔu	unique			See Language page
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	tʰikʰaẓi šan	tʰikʰaẓi ʃan	inheritance	Proto-Arawak?		See Language page
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	dama-n	dama-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak	primarily transitive	See Language page
spit	escupir	cuspir	body	supʰitʰa-n	supʰitʰa-n	unknown			See Language page
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	tʰadaʔukʰa-n	tʰadaʔukʰa-n	inheritance?			See Language page
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	raɨda-n	raɨda-n	unique			See Language page
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact	dakʰatʰa-n	dakʰatʰa-n	unknown			See Language page
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	kʰadišitʰa-n	kʰadišitʰa-n	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
star	estrella	estrela	environment	wiiẓi	wiiẓi	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
steal	robar	roubar	other	kʰuʔidapʰa-n	kʰuʔidapʰa-n	unknown			See Language page
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	atʰamɨnɨ	atʰamɨnɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	kʰɨˀba	kʰɨˀba	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
suck	chupar	chupar	body	suẓukʰa-n	suẓukʰa-n	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
sun	sol	sol	time	kʰamuu	kʰamuu	inheritance			See Language page
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body	mašikʰia-n	mašikʰia-n	unique			See Language page
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	šiia-n	šiia-n	unknown			See Language page
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	niutʰa-n	niutʰa-n	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?		See Language page
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	-ˀdyɨu	ˀdjɨu	inheritance	Proto-Arawak?		See Language page
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar		ɖiwɨɽaː	unique			See Language page
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	tuɽumaɽu	tuɽumaɽu	unique			See Language page
thin	delgado	fino	quality	maɖaɖɨkaʔu	maɖaɖɨkaʔu	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?		See Language page
think	pensar	pensar	mental	diʔitʰapʰa-n	diʔitʰapʰa-n	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
this	este/esta	este	grammar		ɖiwɨɽaː	unique			See Language page
three	tres	tres	number	idikʰinaɨdaʔɨ	idikʰinaɨdaʔɨ	unique			See Language page
throat	garganta	garganta	body	[-]šararan	[-]šararan	unique			See Language page
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	kabuʔutan	kabuʔutan	inheritance?			See Language page
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	tʰuruwanarɨ	tʰuruwanarɨ	doubtful loan	Portuguese trouvão		See Language page
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	duʔutʰa-n	duʔutʰa-n	unknown			See Language page
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	-ninuˀba	-ninuˀba	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
tooth	diente	dente	body	-ɨˀdakʰu	-ɨˀdakʰu	unique			See Language page
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other	pʰadantʰa-n	pʰadantʰa-n	unknown		may be transitive or intransitive	See Language page
two	dos	dois	number	dyaʔɨtʰam	djaʔɨtʰam	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	tait	tait	inheritance			See Language page
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	čʰiʔikʰapʰa-n	tʃʰiʔikʰapʰa-n	unknown			See Language page
water	agua	agua	environment	wɨnɨ	wɨnɨ	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	ẓaˀbi-ʔu	ẓaˀbi-ʔu	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	kʰanu-m dii; naʔapʰam	kʰanu-m dii; naʔapʰam	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?		See Language page
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	naʔapainim	naʔapainim	unique			See Language page
where?	donde	onde	grammar	naʔiam (di:)	naʔiam (di:)	unique			See Language page
white	blanco	branco	colour	ˀbarakʰa-ʔu	ˀbarakʰa-ʔu	unknown			See Language page
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	kʰan-dii; kʰanu-m	kʰan-dii; kʰanu-m	inheritance	Proto North Arawak?		See Language page
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	-ˀdaiaru	-ˀdajaru	unique			See Language page
wind	viento	vento	environment	auwaɽɨ	auwaɽɨ	inheritance	Proto North Arawak		See Language page
wing	ala	asa	body	[-]kʰɨtʰɨˀba	[-]kʰɨtʰɨˀba	unique			See Language page
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	ẓɨna	ẓɨna	inheritance	Proto-Arawak		See Language page
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	kaʔɨɖiɲam	kaʔɨɖiɲam	unknown			See Language page
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body	tʰaˀbaawa-n	tʰaˀbaawa-n	unknown			See Language page
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	kʰidai-ʔu	kʰidai-ʔu	unique			See Language page


1pl.excl
1pl.incl
1sg
2pl
2sg
3pl
3sg
above
again
all
and
ankle
armpit
ash
at
back
bad
bark
belly
below
big
bite
black
blood
blow
boil/pimple
bone
breast
breathe
burn
chew
child
climb
cloud
cold
come
cook
correct/true
count
cry
cut/hack
day
die/be dead
dig
dingo/wolf
dirty
dream
drink
dry
dull/blunt
dust
ear
earth/soil
eat
egg
eye
faeces
fall
far
fat/grease
father
fear
feather
fingernail
fire
flow
flower
fly
fog
foot
fruit
good
green
grow
hair (of head)
hand
head
hear
heart
heavy
hide
hit
hold
hot
how?
if
in/inside
intestines
itch
kill
know/be knowledgeable
lake
laugh
leaf
left/left hand
leg/foot
lie down
lightning
live/be alive
liver
long
louse
lung
man/male
meat/flesh
moon
mother
mountain/hill
mouth
name
nape
near/close
neck
new
night
no/not
nose
old
one
open/uncover
other
pain/painful/sick
person/human being
pound/beat
rain
red
right/right hand
road/path
root
rotten
sand
say
scratch
see
sharp
shoot
short
shoulder
shy/ashamed
sit
skin
sky
sleep
small
smoke
sniff/smell
spit
split
squeeze
stab/pierce
stand
star
steal
stick/wood
stone
suck
sun
sweat
swell
swim
tail
that
thick
thin
think
this
three
throat
throw
thunder
tie up/fasten
tongue
tooth
turn
two
vomit
walk
water
wet
what?
when?
where?
white
who?
wife
wind
wing
woman/female
work
yawn
yellow

Showing 1 to 191 of 191 entries

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (136)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Source	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Food Source	Medicinal	Psychotropic	Traded	Distribution	Dangerous	General Notes
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana				missing						See Language page	1	0	0	0	1	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	shrub
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	sukuɽɨ	sukuɽɨ		doubtful loan		Carib				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	kʰanawaˀda; atʰurɨ	kʰanawaˀda; atʰurɨ		unique		second form is from 'canoe'	May be inheritance			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Throughout Amazonia	no?	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis	pʰuuwa	pʰuuwa		unknown						See Language page	1	0	0	0	0	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls	no
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	no	a tree; not a true grape
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes	pakubaʔi	pakubaʔi		unknown						See Language page	2	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	yes
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	pʰaẓaru	pʰaẓaru		unique						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae	generic ant: matʰɨ	generic ant: matʰɨ		unknown			Gloss as 'generic' not clear from source. Might be cognate w/ 'sauva' in other lgs, but correspondences don't seem to match well.			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonian lowlands	no
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	kapaʃi	kapaʃi		inheritance						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread in Amazonia	no
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	tropical regions, especially river banks	no	plant
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	tree
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.	wabu	wabu		loan		Carib	See Carijona wahu			See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia	no
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.	tree: sɨẓ kʰadɨnaa	tree: sɨẓ kʰadɨnaa		loan		Carib kurutana 'bastard plantain'				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.	tʰamarɨu	tʰamarɨu		unique						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.	kʰumaasa	kʰumaasa		loan (into protolanguage?) - WW	North Arawak	%kumana	Wanderwort: May have TG source, loan into Wai Wai, various East Tukanoan, Puinave, etc.	WW	%kumana	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		kutɨʔɨʐɨ	kutɨʔɨʐɨ		inheritance						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forests, native to Brazil	no	tree
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba				missing						See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	no	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	tʰaruˀbaru	tʰaruˀbaru		unknown						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	mutu	mutu		inheritance	Proto-Arawak?		History unclear; similar form attested in Paresi.			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	indigenous gardens	no	plant; tree
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	no	tree
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata				missing						See Language page	2	0	0	0	0		yes
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	mapʰapʰaru	mapʰapʰaru		inheritance						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris	kaʃu	kaʃu		inheritance	North Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	no	plant
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Brazil, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, Guyana	no
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda	pʰišiˀbaʔi	pʰiʃiˀbaʔi		unique						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forest, floodplain	no	vine
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca				missing						See Language page	1	0	0	1	1	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	no	plant
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria	ˀbašarau	ˀbaʃarau		loan		Carib, e.g. Wai Wai mahčaru				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu	bakɨɽ	bakɨɽ		loan		Carib	e.g. Akawaio pagira			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua	kuatʃi	kuatʃi		loan		Wayampi kwasi				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)	kiɲaɽɨɖɨ	kiɲaɽɨɖɨ		inheritance						See Language page	0	0	0	0	1	secondary scrub vegetation	no	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cunuri (tree)	cunuri	cunuri	flora-fauna	Cunurea spruceana				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Amazonia	no
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Amazonia	no
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	aru	aru		unique			Possibly cognate Warekena			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	arimarakʰa	arimarakʰa		loan		Carib (Pemon/Makushi)	Pemon aɾimaɾaka			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Not native; widespread	no
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae	uriˀdi	uriˀdi		inheritance		loan into Akawaio?	Akawaio: werudʒi			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family	ˀbai	ˀbai		inheritance	Proto-Arawak?	prob. related to S. Arawak *hopa				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus	kʰasumi	kʰasumi		loan		Carib: WaiWai kašmi				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		yes
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		kupaɨn	kupaɨn		inheritance	Proto-Arawak (North and South)					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
fish (large type)	paiche, pirarucú o arapaima	pirarucu	flora-fauna	Arapaima gigas				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	big rivers only	no
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.	uku	uku		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	yes [used to poison people]	shrub/tree
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	kʰuwaiˀba	kʰuwaiˀba		inheritance		Carib	e.g. Akawaio tʃiʔpoŋ; Also: kʰuwaiˀba (Melville IDS)			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana				missing						See Language page	1	0	0	0	0	widespread lowland SA	no	shrub
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)	piniɖi	piniɖi		unique						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões	no
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread South America	no
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.	maɽata	maɽata		inheritance	Proto-Arawak (North and South)	WW%mare, Arawak origin				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Different types have different localized ranges	no
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola										See Language page
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi				missing						See Language page	1	0	0	1	0	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	no	vine
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae	kʰara-kʰarari	kʰara-kʰarari		doubtful loan, direction unknown		Tupi-Guarani (see Aura kar'kara) or Tiriyo kahkakane: possibly onomatopoeic				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	maˀbaˀdarɨ	maˀbaˀdarɨ		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus	kʰawaru	kʰawaru		loan		Portuguese				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens	ɖiːɖaɖa	ɖiːɖaɖa		unique						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	no	plant
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	pimɨɖa	pimɨɖa		inheritance	Central North Arawak					See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread	no
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)	no
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	baɨɖukuɽɨ	baɨɖukuɽɨ		unique						See Language page	1	2	0	0	0		yes
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	large tree
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	no	tree
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.	kaʐaɽa	kaʐaɽa		doubtful loan into protolg - WW		%arara		WW	%ara	See Language page	1	1	0	0	1	Widespread Amazonia	no
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	maẓikʰi	maẓikʰi		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	no	plant
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	kanɨʐ	kanɨʐ		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	no	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	makaʃiɽi	makaʃiɽi		loan		Carib 'amaka sera' = 'sweet manioc'	Found in some TG languages and in Warekena; probably a loan from TG, but inherited status in that group is unclear.			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	no	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa				missing						See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	no	trunks contain sago-like starch
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	misu	misu		unknown			Could be inheritance, but correspondences don't appear regular.			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus	kʰurii	kʰurii		inheritance						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)	čʰamadaru; atʰamɨn tʰain	tʃʰamadaru; atʰamɨn tʰain		unknown			Also: atʰamɨn tʰain			See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no	prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae	yawari	jawari		loan - WW		%jawari	Likely loan Carib (Wai Wai?) > Wapishana /jawari/; Hodï /yowale/; Yanomami /awaɾe/, Piaroa yäväre	WW	%jaware	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes	masuwikʰi	masuwikʰi		inheritance						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread	no
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)	uɽanɨ	uɽanɨ		loan		Carib; cf. Akawaio urana	Akawaio urana			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana	dyɨwɨẓɨadaʔɨ (IDS)			missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	no	palm
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica	waru	waru		inheritance - WW?	North Arawak	%awaro				See Language page	1	0	0	0	1	Widespread	no
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no	palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes	wazii		pupunha	missing						Oliveira et al. 2011: 170	2	1	0	0	0		no	'<wazi> is glossed as 'awara palm' [Astrocaryum vulgare; tucuma] in Ati'o et al. 2000. Scholar's Dictionary and Grammar of the Wapishana Language. p.93. From Konrad Rybka: I am not sure if the Wapishana term is correct. I think Henfrey’s work is pretty re
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no [not in this region]
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum	kʰaẓɨɨ	kʰaẓɨɨ		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation	no	compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	kʰaaẓɨɨ	kʰaaẓɨɨ		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no	tree
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones	kʰankʰurɨn	kʰankʰurɨn		unique						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		yes
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua				missing						See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia		may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata	generic lizard: kʰuitʰu	generic lizard: kʰuitʰu	generic lizard	inheritance	North Arawak?					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda	uwaɨ	uwaɨ		unique			Similarity to Akawaio kuiwa, but no clear relationship.			See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		generic snake: kʰuwaẓaẓ	generic snake: kʰuwaẓaẓ		unique						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox	iʃaʐaɽɨ	iʃaʐaɽɨ		unique						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread South America	yes
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae	suuwa	suuwa		inheritance						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.	kʰauwiam	kʰauwiam		loan		Carib	e.g. Wai wai awayama; Makushi kaiyuma			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.	ˀdyɨɨˀbɨrɨ	ˀdyɨɨˀbɨrɨ		loan - WW		Carib, e.g. Tiriyo cipari				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.	generic yam: kʰiriča; čʰipʰuwii	generic yam: kʰiritʃa; tʃʰipʰuwii		unknown			Also: čʰipʰuwii			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	kudui	kudui		inheritance			Cognate Paresi			See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae	mami	mami		inheritance	Northern Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	frog: kʰiˀbaru	frog: kʰiˀbaru	frog	inheritance	North Arawak?					See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum	suuma	suuma		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	1	0	0	0	1		no	plant
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	turtle: ˀdaẓau	turtle: ˀdaẓau	jabuti	unique			Also: turtle: ˀdaẓau (Melville IDS)			See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Widespread	no
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.	tʃakui	tʃakui		inheritance						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		atʰamɨnɨ	atʰamɨnɨ		inheritance	Proto-Arawak					See Language page	0	0	0	0	0
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella	pʰuwatʰɨ (generic?)	pʰuwatʰɨ (generic?)		inheritance						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	no	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae	watʰu	watʰu		inheritance	North Arawak					See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread South America	no
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita	čʰimikʰiʔi	tʃʰimikʰiʔi		loan, direction unknown		Carib, Wayana simakani				See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus				missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari	kuʃi	kuʃi	pig (porco)	missing						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae				missing						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no

Showing 1 to 136 of 136 entries

Cultural Vocabulary (106)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	ˀbairii	ˀbairii		unique						Possibly Carib loan; see Akawaio pöröu	Simplex		hunting, warfare	See Language page
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	ˀbaru	ˀbaru		unique			Spanish?	WW	%sapara	See other Carib (e.g. Pemon kusupará); Urarina sa:beɽe; Iquito sáhuiri; Sikuani sipari (axe); Carib (spear)	Simplex		especially for clearing fields	See Language page
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool	maˀbai	maˀbai		unknown							Simplex	-n is verbal marker ("infinitival?")	can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material	ˀbuun	ˀbuun		unique										See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	daẓuwan			Unknown							Simplex			See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	generic basket: daẓuwan	daẓuwan		unique										See Language page
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material	generic basket: daẓuwan	generic basket: daẓuwan		missing										See Language page
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material	kʰašuru	kʰaʃuru		loan - WW			%kasiru	WW	%kasuru	Carib (e.g. Akawaio kazuru); Matses (Pano) kasɨɾɯ; Hup g'ǎç	Simplex			See Language page
bed	cama	cama	culture-material				missing										See Language page
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	tabai	tabai		inheritance						Possibly inherited		-bai may be some sort of classifier?		See Language page
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool				missing									currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool				missing										See Language page
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation				missing										See Language page
bottom grinding stone			manufacture				missing									if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	sumara	sumara		inheritance	*sumeca	Proto-Arawak	cf. Tupi-Guarani sumara 'enemy'; Payne91 reconstructs Wap 'bow'				Simplex		arco	See Language page
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material	pʰaraɨ-riˀbai	pʰaraɨ-riˀbai		unique			from 'sweep'				Other Complex	-bai may be some sort of classifier?		See Language page
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	kʰanawa	kʰanawa		loan - WW			%kanawa	WW	%kanawa	WW occurs in various Carib (kanau, kanawa, kanowa, kanáw); Guayabero, kanáw; Candoshi, kánó; Jivaro, kán; Matses, cano; Napo Lowland Quichua, kanu; Siriano, cũma; Yanomam (kanaw, kanae). Ultimate source sometimes claimed to be Carib, but Taylor 1957 argue	Simplex			See Language page
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	piʃani	piʃani		loan - WW			%pisana	WW	%pisana	probably originally from Port bicho 'small animal'; compare E. Tukano, (e.g. Desano pisana); Arawak (e.g. Tariana pisána); Carib (Makushi pisana; Pemon pitʃana); Kakua pitʃina. But note Quechua 'broom' pitʃana	Simplex			See Language page
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	kʰɨrɨkʰɨ	kʰɨrɨkʰɨ		loan - WW			%karaka	WW	%karaka	Probably Arawak origin (see Nordenskiold 1922). Tukanoan, e.g. Wanano karaka; Arawak, e.g. Baniwa kaláka; Yanomamo, Nadeb; Macaguan takra, Sikuani wakara	Simplex			See Language page
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	tʰuʃau	tʰuʃau		loan - WW			%tuʃawa			compare Pemón tusawa	Simplex			See Language page
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	kʰamičʰa-n	kʰamitʃʰa-n		loan			Spanish							See Language page
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool	t͡ʃʰipʰirari	t͡ʃʰipʰirari		semantic shift			from 'axe' (%sipara)	WW	%sapara	Via Pemon supararii; see also Akawaio suubararii; other Carib (e.g. Pemon kusupará); Urarina sa:beɽe; Iquito sáhuiri; Sikuani sipari (axe); Carib (spear)	Simplex			See Language page
coca			narcotics				Missing										See Language page
cook food			food	warakʰa-n			Inheritance		Proto North Arawak					Simplex			See Language page
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology				missing									malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page
dance (generic)			culture-mythology	kʰunaɨpʰa-n			Unknown							Simplex			See Language page
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool				missing									hunting and warfare	See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology	tʰumĩĩkʰarɨ	tʰumĩĩkʰarɨ		unknown									In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool				Missing										See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool				missing										See Language page
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	kʰa-ẓanˀdaʔautʰ-ĩĩa-n	kʰa-ẓanˀdaʔautʰ-ĩĩa-n		unknown							Other Complex	-ĩĩa-n looks like some sort of "reflexive"/self-action suffix		See Language page
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture				missing									Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool	awariˀbai	awariˀbai		doubtful loan			Carib, e.g. Makiritare wadi-wadi				Other Complex	-bai may be some sort of classifier?	esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other	kʰurara	kʰurara		loan			Spanish/Portuguese	WW	%kurara	Nheengatu kurara; Northern Emberá korrá	Simplex		may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture	fermented drink: riwɨnii	fermented drink: riwɨnii		inheritance? - WW; unknown			%pajaru						prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other	tʰikʰaẓi wiiẓi	tʰikʰaẓi wiiẓi		unknown							Compound	fire house		See Language page
firewood	leña	lenha	other	ẓuwaakʰarɨ	ẓuwaakʰarɨ		inheritance		Proto North Arawak								See Language page
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food				missing										See Language page
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	kubawatan	kubawatan		unique										See Language page
fish poison	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	subsistence tool	ukʰu			Inheritance		Proto-Arawak?					Simplex			See Language page
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool	kʰuˀbauwɨ ẓɨnaa	kʰuˀbauwɨ ẓɨnaa		doubtful calque			Carib			Local Carib lgs also have 'hook-string'; but so does Baniwa (and other Arawak?)	Compound	hook CL(?):long, string		See Language page
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool	darukʰu	darukʰu		doubtful loan direction unknown			Murui Witoto			More likely Arawak > Witoto?	Simplex			See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food	baɖa	baɖa		unknown							Simplex		usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food	pʰuruuma	pʰuruuma		loan - WW			%porowa	WW	%porowa	Akawaio prowa; Wapishana phuruuma; Sikuani bawa; Hodi hyowã	Simplex		agriculture	See Language page
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology	kʰuwɨda	kʰuwɨda		inheritance		Proto North Arawak				May be cognate Yucuna	Simplex		multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food				missing									Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page
genipap			culture-mythology				Missing										See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	uia-ʔu durunai	uia-ʔu durunai		unknown										See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	mutu	mutu		inheritance?			%koto/matoko				Simplex			See Language page
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool				missing									esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology	ˀbaranai	ˀbaranai		unknown										See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool	tʰaraʔapʰau	tʰaraʔapʰau		unknown										See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool	warakʰ-ĩĩ-apʰa-kʰiẓai	warakʰ-ĩĩ-apʰa-kʰiẓai (IDS, stove?)	stove	unique							Derived	cook-REFL?-NMLZ?-place?	agriculture?	See Language page
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	mukʰau	mukʰau		loan - WW			%mokawa				Simplex			See Language page
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	z̨amaka	ʐamaka		inheritance		Proto Arawak		WW	%amaka	Wanderwort, Arawak source	Simplex			See Language page
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	kʰuwama	-kʰuwama		unknown							Simplex			See Language page
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology				missing									Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics				missing										See Language page
honey	miel	mel	food	riwɨ (Santos) maˀba (IDS, = 'bee')	riwɨ (Santos) maˀba (IDS, = 'bee')		unique; inheritance						Alternate: maˀba	Simplex		only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page
house			other	kʰaˀbaɨnɨ	kʰaˀbaɨnɨ		inheritance			Proto-Arawak							See Language page
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	tʰiwaapʰa-n; waatʰapʰa-n	tʰiwaapʰa-n; waatʰapʰa-n		unknown							Simplex	-n is verbal marker ("infinitival?")		See Language page
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	marii	marii		loan (into protolg?), direction unknown - WW			%marije	WW	%mariye	Probably Carib > Baniwa-Tariana (+ Wapishana?) subgroup. Arawak: Wapishana, Baniwa, Tariana; Carib: Trio, Akawaio, Mapoyo, Yabarana, Pemon, Wai Wai, Waimiri-Atroari; Nadëb; possibly Ocaina	Simplex			See Language page
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress				missing										See Language page
machete	machete	facão	culture-material	supaŗa	supaŗa		loan - WW			%sipara/sapere	WW	%sapara	Other Carib languages: Pemon, kasupara; Yanomami sipaɾa; Urarina sa:beɽe ?	Simplex			See Language page
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool	akʰu	akʰu		loan			Carib			also Pemón ako; Alternate: imiʔitʰan-naa	Simplex			See Language page
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	pʰuura	pʰuura		loan, direction unknown			Carijona							See Language page
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology														See Language page
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	kʰaritʰa	kʰaritʰa		loan			Span/Port 'carta', via Carib?			form only attested in Macushi, but data missing for Akawaio and others.	Simplex			See Language page
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool	daɨri'bai	daɨri'bai		unknown							Other Complex	-bai may be some sort of classifier?		See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other				Missing										See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other				missing										See Language page
plate	plato	prato	culture-material	pʰarapʰi	pʰarapʰi		loan			%parapi, via Carib	WW	%karapi	Compare Akawaio. Attested various Carib and Arawak lgs. Possibly related to Span. plato. Strange p~k correspondence, but otherwise look like same etymon. Meaning varies between clay plate and clay pot.	Simplex			See Language page
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation				missing										See Language page
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	kʰaʔɨẓa-kʰin	kʰaʔɨẓa-kʰin		inheritance	*kopi		cf. Payne91				Simplex			See Language page
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology	šikʰi-šikʰi	ʃikʰi-ʃikʰi		doubtful loan			onomatopoeia, but cf. Wayampi; also Cayapa, Bora, Jivaroan				Onomatopoeic			See Language page
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool				missing										See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	ẓuupʰa	ẓuupʰa		unknown										See Language page
salt	sal	sal	food	d̨i̵u	d̨i̵u		loan - WW	*idɨwɨ	Proto Arawak	%jukira				Simplex			See Language page
school	escuela	escola	acculturation				missing										See Language page
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology				missing									In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress				missing										See Language page
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material				missing										See Language page
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation				missing										See Language page
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	čʰipʰirari	tʃʰipʰirari		loan - WW			via Carib, %sipara/sapere	WW	%sapara	Ultimate source Spanish; see Akawaio suubararii; other Carib (e.g. Pemon kusupará); Urarina sa:beɽe; Iquito sáhuiri; Sikuani sipari (axe); Carib (spear)	Simplex			See Language page
spearthrower			subsistence tool				missing										See Language page
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food	waiwai; waɨnii (also 'manioc, cassava')	waiwai; waɨnii (also 'manioc, cassava')		unknown										See Language page
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material				missing										See Language page
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	kʰaiwara	kʰaiwara	sugar cane	loan			Carib				Simplex			See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food				missing									agriculture	See Language page
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology				missing										See Language page
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material	dyɨwɨẓɨadaʔɨ	dyɨwɨẓɨadaʔɨ		unknown						Also: anabaj (Santos 2006)				See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food	niz̧u	niʐu		unknown							Simplex		word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page
tobacco (native)			narcotics	suuma			Inheritance	*yɨma	Proto Arawak				Sikuani tséːma; Cuiva tséma; Cofan ccumba;	Simplex			See Language page
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture				missing									use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool				missing									agriculture	See Language page
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool	uɽaɽi	uɽaɽi		loan - WW			%wirari			Most direct donor or recipient is Akawaio			hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page
wax	cera	cera	other	maˀbaiˀba	maˀbaiˀba		unique								from 'bee'		See Language page
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	ẓuruwa-n	ẓuruwa-n		inheritance		Proto North Arawak					Simplex	-n is verbal marker ("infinitival?")	agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology				missing									a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page

Showing 1 to 106 of 106 entries

Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	yes		Santos 2006:108
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	yes		Santos 2006
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	no		Santos 2006
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no info		Santos 2006
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes		Santos, 2006: 156
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no		Santos 2006
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Santos 2006
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes		Santos 2006
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Santos 2006
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Santos 2006:23
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Santos 2006
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	no		Santos 2006
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	no		Santos 2006
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	yes		Santos, 2006: 125
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no		Santos, 2006:139
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	yes	Object, beneficiary/recipient	Santos, 2006: 215
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	3		Santos 2006:215
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no	Other grammatical relations (dative, instrumental, etc.) can get case markings, but they are not the primary--and certainly not the only--set.	Santos 2006:216
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	yes		Santos, 2006: 215
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no		Santos, 2006: 215
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes	Usually suffixes.	Santos, 2006: 215
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Santos, 2006: 215
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Santos, 2006: 215
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Santos, 2006: 215
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Santos, 2006: 215
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no	Comitative marked with unattached/free word, whereas instrumental is a case suffix.	Santos 2006:216
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no		Santos 2006
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no		Santos 2006
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	yes		Santos 2006
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	no		Santos, 2006: 185
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Santos, 2006: 159
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	2	proximal and distant	Santos 2006: 188
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no		Santos 2006:188
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes	Sets include masculine/feminine, animacy, alienable/inalienable, shape, location, and others. Each is treated as a noun class.	Santos, 2006:139
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	36	Includes gender, use, place, shape…	Santos, 2006:3
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes	The same morphology used for distinguishing noun class can also be used for noun classification, with the difference being in how the morphology affects the meaning of the noun. For example, the suffix "-ɖap" meaning (roughly) habitat. When used as noun c	Santos, 2006:115
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	yes		Santos, 2006:139
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Santos, 2006:139
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	no		Santos, 2006:
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	yes		Santos, 2006: 160
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no		Santos, 2006: 126
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes		Santos, 2006
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no info		Santos, 2006
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	yes		Santos, 2006: 118
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	no		Santos, 2006:125
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no		Santos, 2006: 143
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes		Santos, 2006: 143
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Santos, 2006: 143
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Santos, 2006: 143
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Santos, 2006: 143
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no		Santos, 2006: 143
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	yes		Santos, 2006: 185
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no info		Santos 2006
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no		Santos, 2006: 197-201
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	yes	"whole hand"	Santos, 2006: 197-201
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	yes	Word construction changes with each set of 10.	Santos, 2006: 197-201
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no		Santos, 2006: 197-201
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	yes	5 = whole hand (with 1, 2, 3, and 4 meaning respective number of digits of the hand)	Santos 2006
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Santos 2006
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Santos 2006
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no		Santos 2006
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no		Santos 2006
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		yes	Masculine/Feminine	Santos, 2006: 185
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no	Only realized as masculine (default).	Santos, 2006: 185
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Santos, 2006: 186
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Santos, 2006: 185
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no		Santos 2006:185
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	no	Adjectives are formed by taking a word from a different word class and adding an adjectivizing affix (which varies based on semantic goal).	Santos 2006:176
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	yes		Santos 2006:179
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	yes		Santos 2006:136
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes		Santos 2006
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	yes		Santos 2006
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	yes		Santos 2006:157
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no		Santos, 2006; 203
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes		Santos, 2006: 101
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Santos, 2006: 101
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no		Santos, 2006: 131
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes		Santos, 2006: 131
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	yes	There are classifiers for both possessed and unpossessed; the function appears mostly to help semantically.	Santos, 2006: 121
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Santos 2006:99
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	yes	Not clear what the situations are that call for the different affixes. Could be phonologically influenced.	Santos 2006:132
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no		Santos 2006:99
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	yes		Santos 2006:102
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	yes		Santos 2006:102
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Santos 2006:102
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no		Santos, 2006: 32
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no	Some consonants have "traces" of ejection or glottalization, but not enough for phonemic contrast.	Santos, 2006: 32
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no		Santos, 2006: 32
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	yes		Santos, 2006:34
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Santos, 2006:34
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Santos, 2006:69
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	no		Santos, 2006:69
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Santos, 2006:69
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no		Santos, 2006:32
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no		Santos, 2006:32
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no		Santos, 2006:32
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	yes	"Nasalization spreads to the right from a nasal vowel, carring through m, n, e w, but stopping just before any other consonant or before epenthetic a. The spread of nasalization crosses the border between prestem and stem."	Santos, 2006:58
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		yes	When the vowel /a/ occurs immediately after a consonant preceded by the vowel /i/, the /a/ harmonizes and becomes [ɛ].	Santos, 2006:47
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	yes		Santos, 2006: 210
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Santos, 2006: 210
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no		Santos, 2006: 210
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Santos, 2006: 210
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Santos, 2006: 210
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		yes		Santos, 2006: 187
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no		Santos, 2006: 187
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Santos, 2006: 187
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Santos, 2006: 187
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Santos, 2006: 187
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	yes		Santos, 2006: 160
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Santos, 2006: 160
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Santos, 2006: 160
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Santos, 2006: 160
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no		Santos, 2006: 160
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no	Only presence of q-word.	Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no	Each verb bears its own morphology.	Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	yes	Referred to as an "interrupter" or "intermitent" event.	Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	yes	Possible, not always grammatical, and usually used under circumstances where a subject is being described with an adjective or a location.	Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes	In addition to pronominal prefixes. Do not usually co-occur; prefixes typically occur when there are multiple arguments, rather than just a subject/object.	Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes	In addition to free pronouns. Do not usually co-occur; prefixes typically occur when there are multiple arguments, rather than just a subject/object.	Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	yes	3rd singular.	Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	yes	Usually marked or coupled with a prepostion or directional.	Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	yes	Not a dedicated morpheme. Also used for designating recipient and dative.	Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no		Santos 2006
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	no		Santos 2006:167
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no		Santos 2006:167
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		no		Santos 2006:167
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Santos, 2006: 116
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes	Relatively few (including past, present, imperative, future).	Santos, 2006: 116
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Santos, 2006: 116
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Santos, 2006: 116
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	no info		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no		Santos, 2006:164
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	no		Santos, 2006:164
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	no		Santos, 2006: 165
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	no		Santos, 2006:164
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no info		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no info		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no info		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no		Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		yes	Occurs as its own word, meaning "maybe."	Santos 2006
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no		Santos 2006: 169
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	no		Santos 2006: 169
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	no		Santos 2006: 169
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no		Santos 2006: 164
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no		Santos 2006: 166
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no		Santos 2006: 169
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no		Santos 2006: 169
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no		Santos 2006
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no	SVO	Santos, 2006: 217
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no		Santos, 2006: 217
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no		Santos, 2006: 217
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	yes		Santos, 2006: 217
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no		Santos, 2006: 217
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Santos, 2006: 201
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Santos, 2006: 201
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	no		Santos, 2006: 222
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	yes		Santos, 2006: 222
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	yes		Santos, 2006: 179
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	yes		Santos, 2006: 179
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes		Santos, 2006: 188
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no		Santos, 2006: 188
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes		Santos, 2006: 198
Word Order	Noun-Num		no		Santos, 2006: 198
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes		Santos, 2006: 247
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Santos, 2006: 247
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no		Santos, 2006: 247
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Santos, 2006: 247
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Santos, 2006: 234

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