Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Desano

Family: Tukanoan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: des
Location: 0.58°, -69.50°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information

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Data Sources: Chacon, Thiago. 2014. A Revised Proposal of Proto-Tukanoan Consonants and Tukanoan Family Classification. International Journal of American Linguistics 80.3: 275-322. Miller, Marion. 1999. Desano grammar: Studies in the languages of Colombia 6. (Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington Publications in Linguistics, 132.) Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. López, Reinaldo and Miller, Marion and Alemán M., Tulio. 2000. Wirã ya, peamasa ya wererituri (Desano-Español) (Diccionario bilingüe de 896 palabras). Bogotá: Editorial Alberto Lleras Camargo.

Basic Vocabulary (192)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar	gʉa	gɨa	inheritance			See Language page
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	mari	mari	inheritance		no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted	See Language page
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	yʉhʉ	jɨ ʔɨ	inheritance		For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms	See Language page
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	mʉa	mɨa	inheritance			See Language page
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	mʉhʉ	mɨ ʔɨ	inheritance			See Language page
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	ẽrã	ẽrã	inheritance			See Language page
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	ĩgʉ̃, igo (she)	ĩgɨ̃, igo (she)	inheritance			See Language page
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	weca	weka	unique			See Language page
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar			missing			See Language page
all	todo	todos	other	árĩpehrerã (plural form)	áɾĩpeʔɾeɾã	inheritance			See Language page
and	y	e	grammar			missing			See Language page
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body	añayaru	~ajajaɾu	inheritance			See Language page
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body			missing			See Language page
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	nuja	nuha	inheritance			See Language page
at	en, a	em, a	location			missing			See Language page
back	espalda	costas	body	pᵾrᵾpᵾ	pɨɾɨpɨ	unknown			See Language page
bad	mal	mal	quality	ñero	ñero	inheritance			See Language page
bark	corteza	casca	environment	gasiro	gasiro	inheritance			See Language page
belly	barriga	barriga	body	paru	paru	inheritance			See Language page
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location	doca	doka	inheritance			See Language page
big	grande	grande	quality	wʉarí	wɨarí	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Arawak: Achagua wé:ri		See Language page
bite	morder	morder	body	cũrĩ-ri	kĩɾĩ-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
black	negro	preto	colour	ñiri	ñiri	inheritance			See Language page
blood	sangre	sangue	body	di	di	inheritance			See Language page
blow	soplar	soprar	body	puri-ri	puɾi-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body			missing			See Language page
bone	hueso	osso	body	goṍã	goṍã	inheritance			See Language page
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	coretíbi	koretíbi	inheritance			See Language page
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	sĩaĩ-ri	sĩaĩ-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	soe-ri (sounds similar to the word in Macuna)	soe-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body	bahga-ri	baʔga-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
child	niño, niña	criança	human	majigʉ, majigo	mahigɨ, mahigo	inheritance			See Language page
climb	subir	subir	motion	mᵾria-ri	mɨɾia-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment	ĩbĩkã ku'rúri (H&R)	ĩbĩkã kuʔrúri (H&R)	unknown			See Language page
cold	frío	frio	quality	yʉsari	jɨsari	inheritance			See Language page
come	venir	vir	motion	ári-ri	áɾi-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	sora-ri	soɾa-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality	diaye (identical with the lexical entry of right)	diaje	inheritance			See Language page
count	contar	contar	mental	were-ri	weɾe-ɾi	unique			See Language page
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	ore-ri	oɾe-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	wíri-ri (with a machete or knife); tabe-ri (to hack firewood with a machete or axe)	wíɾi-ɾi	unique			See Language page
day	día	dia	time	ʉ̃mʉ	ɨ̃mɨ	inheritance			See Language page
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	sĩrĩri	sĩrĩri	unique			See Language page
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	séa-ri	séa-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
dingo/wolf			fauna			missing			See Language page
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	gᵾhraricᵾri	gɨʔɾaɾikɨɾi	unique			See Language page
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	quẽ́-ri	kẽ́-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	ihriri	i ʔriri	inheritance			See Language page
dry	seco	seco	quality	bo'hó-	bo'hó-	inheritance			See Language page
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality	usi-biri-	usi-biri-	missing			See Language page
dust	polvo	poeira	environment	gũruña	gĩɾuja	unique	compare Yagua - "xiru"		See Language page
ear	oreja	orelha	body	gãmiro	gãmiro	inheritance			See Language page
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	yéba	jéba	inheritance			See Language page
eat	comer	comer	body	bari	bari	inheritance	Andoke		See Language page
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	diu	diu	inheritance			See Language page
eye	ojo	olho	body	cuiru	kuiru	inheritance	shared Siriano		See Language page
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body	gᵾra	gɨɾa	inheritance			See Language page
fall	caer	cair	motion	yuridija-ri (to fall from something tall); yurimere-ri (to fall from a lower seat)	juɾidiha-ɾi; juɾimeɾe-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
far	lejos	longe	quality	jo'á-	jo'á-	inheritance			See Language page
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	ʉyi	ɨji	inheritance			See Language page
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	pagʉ	pagɯ	inheritance			See Language page
fear	miedo	medo	mental	gu'í-	gu'í-	missing			See Language page
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	poari	poaɾi	inheritance			See Language page
fingernail	uña	unha	body	mojosĩru pero	mohosĩru pero	unknown			See Language page
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	peame	peame	inheritance			See Language page
fish	xx	xx	fauna	wahi	wahi	inheritance			See Language page
flow	fluir	fluir	motion			missing			See Language page
flower	flor	flor	environment	gori	goɾi	inheritance			See Language page
fly	volar	voar	motion	wʉri	wɨri	inheritance			See Language page
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment	imica buiro (imica means 'smoke')	imika buiɾo	inheritance			See Language page
foot	pie	pé	body	guburu	guburu	inheritance			See Language page
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	dʉca	dɨka	inheritance			See Language page
good	bueno	bom	quality	õari	õari	unique			See Language page
green	verde	verde	quality	yahsari	jaʔsari	inheritance			See Language page
grow	crecer	crescer	state	bʉga-ri	bɨga-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	poari	poari	inheritance			See Language page
hand	mano	mão	body	mojotõ	mohotõ	inheritance	Siriano		See Language page
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	dipuru	dipuɾu	inheritance			See Language page
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	peeri	peeri	unknown			See Language page
heart	corazón	coração	body	sĩporã	sĩporã	inheritance			See Language page
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	nʉcʉ̃ri	nɨkɨ̃ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	duhu-ri	duʔu-ɾi	unique			See Language page
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	paa-ri	paa-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	ñea-ri	jea-ɾi	unique			See Language page
hot	caliente	quente	quality	cũñuri	kũñuri	unique			See Language page
how?	como	como	grammar	doʔ'pa	doʔ'pa	inheritance			See Language page
if	si	se	grammar			missing			See Language page
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	poheca	poʔeka	inheritance			See Language page
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	gʉrasuri	gɨɾasuɾi	inheritance			See Language page
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body			missing			See Language page
kill	matar	matar	impact	wẽjẽri	wẽhẽri	inheritance			See Language page
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	masiri	masiri	inheritance			See Language page
lake	lago	lago	environment	di'tá-ru	di'tá-ru	inheritance			See Language page
laugh	reír	rir	mental	ĩhãye-ri	ĩʔãje-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	pũ	pũ	inheritance			See Language page
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	copʉ	kopɨ	inheritance			See Language page
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	ñigagᵾ	jigagɨ	inheritance			See Language page
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	sía-ri (in a hammock)	sía-ɾi	unique			See Language page
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	similar: bupu mia-ri ('to lighten')	bupu mia-ɾi	unique	cf. thunder		See Language page
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body	ojocari-ri	ohokaɾi-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
liver	hígado	figado	body	ñehmeturi	ñe ʔmeturi	inheritance			See Language page
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	jo'á-	jo'á-	inheritance			See Language page
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	dipumʉramʉ	dipumɯramɯ	unique		order Phtiraptera	See Language page
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	sĩaĩdiru (contains a form of sĩaĩ-ri 'to breathe')	sĩaĩdiɾu	unique			See Language page
man/male	hombre	homem	human	ʉ̃mʉ	ɨ̃mɨ	inheritance			See Language page
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	diro	diro	inheritance			See Language page
moon	luna	lua	environment	abe	abe	inheritance	shared Siriono		See Language page
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	pago	pago	inheritance			See Language page
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	ʉ̃tãgʉ	ɨ̃tãgɨ	inheritance			See Language page
mouth	boca	boca	body	disiro	disiro	inheritance			See Language page
name	nombre	nome	human	wãĩ́	wãĩ́	loan into protolanguage, direction unknown	Boran, Witotoan, Tukanoan		See Language page
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body			missing			See Language page
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	pohro	poʔɾo	inheritance			See Language page
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	wʉ̃nʉgʉ	wɨ̃nɨgɨ	inheritance	shared Siriono		See Language page
new	nuevo	novo	quality	mama	mama	inheritance			See Language page
night	noche	noite	time	jã'bĩ́	jã'bĩ́	inheritance			See Language page
no/not	no	não	grammar	bã́rá, bãrĩ-a	bã́rá, bãrĩ-a	inheritance			See Language page
nose	nariz	nariz	body	ĩguĩru	ĩguĩru	inheritance			See Language page
old	viejo	velho	quality	bʉgʉ, bʉro (person), mʉra	bɨgɨ, bɨro (person), mɨra	inheritance			See Language page
one	uno	um	number	yuju	juhu	unique			See Language page
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	pãgú-ri	pãgú-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
other	otro	outro	grammar	gahi-	gahi-	inheritance			See Language page
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body	similar: pũrĩ-ri ('to be in pain/to hurt')	pĩɾĩ-ɾi	unique			See Language page
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	masʉ̃, masõ	masɨ̃, masõ	inheritance			See Language page
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	mutũ-ri (with the hand)	mutĩ-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	semantically similar: deco mere-ri ('to rain')	deko meɾe-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
red	rojo	vermelho	colour	diari	diari	unique			See Language page
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body	diaye (identical with lexical entry of correct/true)	diaje	inheritance			See Language page
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	maha	ma ʔa	inheritance			See Language page
root	raíz	raiz	flora	nugũ	nugũ	inheritance			See Language page
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	to rot: boa-ri	boa-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
sand	arena	areia	environment	imipa	imipa	inheritance			See Language page
say	decir	dizer	mental	ã'rĩ́-	ã'rĩ́-	inheritance			See Language page
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact	ñahguiriñe	jajguiɾije	inheritance			See Language page
see	ver	ver	mental	ĩãri	ĩãri	inheritance			See Language page
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	usiri	usiɾi	inheritance			See Language page
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	peaye-ri	peaje-ɾi	semantic shift			See Language page
short	corto	curto	quality	yébari	jébaɾi	inheritance			See Language page
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	kõbẽ'páre	kõbẽ'páre	inheritance			See Language page
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental			missing			See Language page
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	doa-ri	doa-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
skin	piel	pele	body	gasiro	gasiro	inheritance			See Language page
sky	cielo	céu	environment	ʉ̃mʉsĩ	ɨ̃mɨsĩ	inheritance			See Language page
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	cãrĩri	kãrĩri	inheritance			See Language page
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	miriñegã, migʉgã	miriñegã, migɨgã	unknown			See Language page
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	ímica	ími ka	inheritance			See Language page
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	wĩjĩriñe (transitive)	wĩhĩɾije	inheritance		primarily transitive	See Language page
spit	escupir	cuspir	body	eopi-ri	eopi-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	nuariñe (esp. hard things)	nuaɾije	unique			See Language page
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	bipi-ri	bipi-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact	jõ'sẽ-	jõ'sẽ-	inheritance			See Language page
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	dĩgĩ-	dĩgĩ-	inheritance			See Language page
star	estrella	estrela	environment	necãmʉ	ne kãmɨ	inheritance			See Language page
steal	robar	roubar	other	yaja-ri	jaha-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	yucʉgʉ	jukɨgɨ	inheritance			See Language page
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	ʉ̃tãye	ɨ̃tãje	inheritance			See Language page
suck	chupar	chupar	body	mími-ri	mími-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
sun	sol	sol	time	abe	abe	inheritance			See Language page
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body	ñajasiriguha-ri	jahasiɾiguʔa-ɾi	inheritance?			See Language page
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	biji-rí	bihi-ɾí	inheritance			See Language page
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	baari	baari	inheritance			See Language page
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	pĩgũru, poreru	pĩgũru, poreru	inheritance			See Language page
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar	si-'rú	si-'rú	inheritance			See Language page
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	wʉarí	wɨaɾí	unique			See Language page
thin	delgado	fino	quality	bũpũ-	bũpũ-	unique			See Language page
think	pensar	pensar	mental	pepi-ɾi	pepi-ri	inheritance			See Language page
this	este/esta	este	grammar	i-'rú	i-'rú	inheritance			See Language page
three	tres	tres	number	ʉhre	ɨ ʔre	unknown			See Language page
throat	garganta	garganta	body	wʉ̃gobe	wɨ̃gobe	unique			See Language page
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	behó-ri	beʔó-ɾi	unique	shared Siriano		See Language page
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	bupu	bupu	inheritance			See Language page
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	diri-ri	diɾi-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	nero	nero	inheritance			See Language page
tooth	diente	dente	body	gʉcʉriru	gɨ kɨriru	inheritance			See Language page
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other	ãĩmajipeo-ri (transitive)	ãĩmahipeo-ɾi	inheritance?		may be transitive or intransitive	See Language page
two	dos	dois	number	pe-	pe-	inheritance			See Language page
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	etoca-ri	etoka-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	wari	wari	inheritance			See Language page
water	agua	agua	environment	deco	de ko	inheritance			See Language page
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	similar: wé-ri ('to make oneself wet')	wé-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	doʔpá, jẽʔẽ́	doʔpá, jẽʔẽ́	inheritance			See Language page
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	doʔ'pã́rĩkɨ̃	doʔ'pã́rĩkɨ̃	inheritance			See Language page
where?	donde	onde	grammar	dõʔ'ṍ	dõʔ'ṍ	inheritance			See Language page
white	blanco	branco	colour	boreri	boreri	inheritance			See Language page
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	dõ'ã́	dõ'ã́	inheritance			See Language page
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	marapʉ	marapɯ	inheritance			See Language page
wind	viento	vento	environment	miruñe	miɾuje	inheritance			See Language page
wing	ala	asa	body	quẽdᵾpᵾ	kẽdɨpɨ	inheritance			See Language page
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	noméo	noméo	inheritance			See Language page
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	mohme-ri	moʔme-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body	yahwʉapu-ri	jaʔwɨapu-ɾi	inheritance			See Language page
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	boreri	boreri	doubtful loan	Witotoan (in Desano, Siriano, Macuna)		See Language page


1pl.excl
1pl.incl
1sg
2pl
2sg
3pl
3sg
above
again
all
and
ankle
armpit
ash
at
back
bad
bark
belly
below
big
bite
black
blood
blow
boil/pimple
bone
breast
breathe
burn
chew
child
climb
cloud
cold
come
cook
correct/true
count
cry
cut/hack
day
die/be dead
dig
dingo/wolf
dirty
dream
drink
dry
dull/blunt
dust
ear
earth/soil
eat
egg
eye
faeces
fall
far
fat/grease
father
fear
feather
fingernail
fire
fish
flow
flower
fly
fog
foot
fruit
good
green
grow
hair (of head)
hand
head
hear
heart
heavy
hide
hit
hold
hot
how?
if
in/inside
intestines
itch
kill
know/be knowledgeable
lake
laugh
leaf
left/left hand
leg/foot
lie down
lightning
live/be alive
liver
long
louse
lung
man/male
meat/flesh
moon
mother
mountain/hill
mouth
name
nape
near/close
neck
new
night
no/not
nose
old
one
open/uncover
other
pain/painful/sick
person/human being
pound/beat
rain
red
right/right hand
road/path
root
rotten
sand
say
scratch
see
sharp
shoot
short
shoulder
shy/ashamed
sit
skin
sky
sleep
small
smoke
sniff/smell
spit
split
squeeze
stab/pierce
stand
star
steal
stick/wood
stone
suck
sun
sweat
swell
swim
tail
that
thick
thin
think
this
three
throat
throw
thunder
tie up/fasten
tongue
tooth
turn
two
vomit
walk
water
wet
what?
when?
where?
white
who?
wife
wind
wing
woman/female
work
yawn
yellow

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Flora Fauna Vocabulary (138)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Source	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Food Source	Medicinal	Psychotropic	Traded	Distribution	Dangerous	General Notes
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana	mosã	mosã		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	1	0	0	0	1	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	shrub
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	bu'í	bu'í		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	diaquẽ	dia'ké̃		unique		water-?'	Shared Desano-Siriano; may contain dia 'river'				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Throughout Amazonia	no?	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis				missing							missing		See Language page	1	0	0	0	0	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls	no
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	no	a tree; not a true grape
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes	pĩru	pĩru, pĩ'rṹ		inheritance	East Tukanoan		Most ET languages have same root for boa and anaconda				uncoded		See Language page	2	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	yes
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	dianojamʉ	dianohamɯ		unknown							uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae	bẽ'gã́	bẽ'gã́		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)	bugu	bu'gú, bugu		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonian lowlands	no
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	pãmu	pã'bú̃, pãmu		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread in Amazonia	no
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum	gã'rɨ̃́	gã'rɨ̃́		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan		Compare Witoto kaní				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	tropical regions, especially river banks	no	plant
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana	ũñu	ũñu		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	tree
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia	no
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.	ojo	o'hó		semantic shift?	Proto-Tukanoan	Chacon 2013: markedness shift from sororoca	Likely family-wide semantic shift from 'bastard plantain' (wild banana look-alike)				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.	oyo	o'jó, oyo		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		waibʉgʉ wʉgʉ (big); mirimagʉ (small)	waibɨgɨ wɨgɨ; miɾimagɨ, bĩ́rĩbã-'gɨ̃́ (H&R)		inheritance	East Tukanoan		Also waibʉgʉ wʉgʉ (large bird)			Narrower (small bird)	uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forests, native to Brazil	no	tree
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba				missing							missing		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	no	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	becapuru, be'ká-bɨ̃, bõ'bã́-bɨ̃	bekapuɾu, be'ká-bɨ̃, bõ'bã́-bɨ̃		inheritance	East Tukanoan		Also bõ'bã́-bɨ̃				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae	pĩru	pĩru, pĩ'rṹ		inheritance	East Tukanoan		Most ET languages have same root for boa and anaconda				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	coaru ('totuma, calabaza' in Miller dict.)	coaru; ko'áru ('gourd', H&R)		inheritance	East Tukanoan, Branch I		May also be shared West Tukanoan			Broader (also means squash)	uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	indigenous gardens	no	plant; tree
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	no	tree
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata				missing							missing		See Language page	2	0	0	0	0		yes
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	puguru	puguru		inheritance			Desano and Siriano				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris	di'á we'kɨ́	di'á we'kɨ́		inheritance	East Tukanoan						phrase	river-tapir'	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	no	plant
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum	gõrẽ	gõrẽ		inheritance?	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium giganteum				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Brazil, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, Guyana	no
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda	ñahquĩ	ñahkĩ		unique							uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.	sĩgã	sĩgã		unique			Shared Desano-Siriano only?				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forest, floodplain	no	vine
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca	ãpĩ	ãp'ĩ́		inheritance	Siriano and Desano		Other languages in family tend to have Wanderwort				uncoded		See Language page	1	0	0	1	1	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	no	plant
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria	sʉrirãmʉ	sɯrirãmɯ		unique			Possibly Proto-Tukanoan; possible cognate in Siona (also Siriano)				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu	yese sũrigũ (collared peccary)	je'sé 'búru		inheritance	East Tukanoan		jese' is general term for wild pig across ET languages. Also je'sé 'búru ?				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)	ju'rá	ju'rá		semantic shift	East Tukanoan	original meaning kapok					uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	1	secondary scrub vegetation	no	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura	gãmi	gãmi		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae	porero	porero		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cunuri (tree)	cunuri	cunuri	flora-fauna	Cunurea spruceana				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Amazonia	no
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.	dũ'pĩ́	dũ'pĩ́		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Amazonia	no
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	ñama	jã'bã́, ñama		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna		ñama	ñama		inheritance									See Language page
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	diaye	dia'jɨ́, dia'jé, diaye		semantic shift/calque/loan w/in ET?	East Tukanoan	from jaguar + ?					uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Not native; widespread	no
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna		diaye	diaye		inheritance									See Language page
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae	buja	buha		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family	diacara	diacara		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus	buibʉgʉ (generic term for eel)	buibɨgɨ		inheritance	East Tukanoan					Broader (eel in general)	uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		yes
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		wahi	wahi		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
fish (large type)	paiche, pirarucú o arapaima	pirarucu	flora-fauna	Arapaima gigas				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	big rivers only	no
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.	nia	nia		unique							uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	yes [used to poison people]	shrub/tree
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	disinomemʉ	disinomemɯ, di'sídõbẽ		unique							uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana				missing							missing		See Language page	1	0	0	0	0	widespread lowland SA	no	shrub
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis	dí'á-jõrã	dí'á-jõrã		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)	taa	taa, ta		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões	no
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba	yaji	jahi		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread South America	no
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti	bui	bui		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.	karabã'hɨ̃́	karabã'hɨ̃́		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Different types have different localized ranges	no
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola													See Language page
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi	ga'pí	ga'pí		loan - WW		%kaapi	Wanderwort; e.g. Nadahup, Kakua-Nukak, Guahiban, North Arawak	WW	%kapi		uncoded		See Language page	1	0	0	1	0	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	no	vine
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae	ga	ga		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	momemʉ	momemɯ, bõ'bẽ́-bɨ̃ (H&R)		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens	bia	bi'á		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	no	plant
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]	ũhrã	ũʔ'gɨ́̃, ĩʔɾã		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	mimi	mimi, bĩ'bĩ́		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan		Compare Arawak, e.g. Baniwa pími				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread	no
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.	joa'sṍ	joa'sṍ		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)	no
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	yee	jé, yee		doubtful loan into protolanguage, direction unknown		Arawak (Chacon reconstructs); cf. TG *jawar	Compare similar Arawak forms				uncoded		See Language page	1	2	0	0	0		yes
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	large tree
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	no	tree
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae	sãrã	sãrã		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.	megãmʉ	megãmɯ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan					Broader (generic 'ant')	uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.	majã	mahã, bã'hã́		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan	Guahiban	Proto-Guahiban; e.g. Macaguan máha				uncoded		See Language page	1	1	0	0	1	Widespread Amazonia	no
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	ojodᵾcaporo	ohodɨkapoɾo, ohodɨ'ká (H&R)		semantic shift (in protolg?)	East Tukanoan	from banana; cf. Hup, Bora					uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	no	plant
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	quĩ	kĩ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan		Compare Arawak forms w/ ka			Broader (manioc in general)	uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	no	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	kĩ	kĩ		missing	Proto-Tukanoan		Possible semantic shift?			Broader (manioc in general)	uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	no	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa				missing							missing		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	no	trunks contain sago-like starch
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	mᵾreamᵾ; ñirã	mɨɾeamɨ; jiɾã, bɨ̃rẽ'ã́-bɨ̃ (H&R)		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan		Also jiɾã				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus	bihi	bí, biʔ'í		inheritance	East Tukanoan					Broader (rat and mouse)	uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)				missing							missing		See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no	prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis	diatimi	di'átĩbĩ, diatimi		inheritance	East Tukanoan		Means both giant otter and small otter across various ET languages; not clear which meaning may have been original				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae	oa	oa		doubtful loan into protolanguage, direction unknown	East Tukanoan	Tikuna	Tikuna öwa				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes	bupupogabu	bupu'pógabu		doubtful loan into protolg - WW? onomatopoeic?	East Tukanoan	%pupu		WW	%pupu		uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread	no
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)	sẽme	sẽ'bé̃, sẽme		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana	mujire	muhire		missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	no	palm
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica	weco	we'kó		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	1	0	0	0	1	Widespread	no
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no	palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes	~ɨdi	~ɨdi	pupunha palm								uncoded		Chacon 2014: Appendix A	2	1	0	0	0		no
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus	sẽrã	sẽrã		inheritance	East Tukanoan	possibly from TG nana?					uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae	bũ'jṹ	bũ'jṹ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no [not in this region]
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae	wáru	wáru		doubtful loan (into protolg?)	East Tukanoan	Carib, cf. Wai Wai waaro, also Yukuna walo					uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum	ahʉ	ahɯ		unique							uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation	no	compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	ñapĩ	ñapĩ, jã'pĩ́		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae	soari	soari		unique							uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no	tree
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones	córeba	córeba		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		yes
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua				missing							missing		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia	no	may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.	tebori	tebori		unique							uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		ã'jã́	ã'jã́		inheritance			Several ET languages use 'snake' root in both forms				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox	ãña	ãja		inheritance							uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread South America	yes
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae	bʉpʉ	bɯpɯ, bɨ'pɨ́ (H&R)		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.	ko'áru	ko'áru		missing	East Tukanoan, Branch I					Broader (also means bottle-gourd)	uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae	wĩsõcã	wĩsõcã		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.	ñamu	ñamu, 'jã́bũ, jãʔ'bṍ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan		Likely loan into Yukpa				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	wecʉ	wecɯ, we'kɨ́		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera	búrua	búrua		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea	tẽjẽ	tẽhẽ		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.	pawa	pawa		inheritance	East Tukanoan, Branch I						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae	cãreña	cãreña		missing							uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	tarubʉgʉ	tarubɯgɯ, 'tárubɨgɨ		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum	muru	muru, bũ'rṹ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	1	0	0	0	1		no	plant
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	peyo	pe'jó		inheritance	Desano and Siriano						uncoded		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Widespread	no
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.	nasĩ	nasĩ, dã'sĩ́ (H&R)		doubtful loan into protolanguage	Proto-Tukanoan	North Arawak	See e.g. Mandawaka da:se, Baniwa dzatte				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		yucʉgʉ	ju kɨgɨ, jukɨ-'gɨ́		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella	ũhrã	ũhrã, ga'kí		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan		Also ũhrã?				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	no	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae	goroporã	goro'pórã		doubtful loan		Carib	Various kuru- forms in Carib				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread South America	no
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita	utimʉ	utimɯ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus	wáu, waʔ'ú	wáu, waʔ'ú		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari	yese buru (generic term for peccary)	jese sɨɾigɨ, jesé		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no

Showing 1 to 138 of 138 entries

Cultural Vocabulary (106)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	buiriwaca	buiriwaca		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Compound	buiri-waka; shoot-dart	hunting, warfare	See Language page
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	cõme	kõme		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex		especially for clearing fields	See Language page
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool				missing								can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material				missing									See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	pui-bu			inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	puibu	puibu		inheritance									See Language page
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material	wʉjʉcoro	wʉhʉkoro		unknown						Compound	wʉhʉ 'arumá plant'		See Language page
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material	ñahguida	ñahgida		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan								See Language page
bed	cama	cama	culture-material	o'já-ri-jẽ	o'já-ri-jẽ		unknown		calque?							See Language page
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	seh-ro	seh-ro		inheritance	Desano-Siriano					Simplex			See Language page
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool	bujuru	buhuru		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan				May derive from Iriartella palm, also possibly related to 'blow'	Simplex		currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation				missing									See Language page
bottom grinding stone			manufacture				missing								if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	buiribero	buiribero		inheritance					from bui 'shoot'?	Compound	buiri-bero; shoot-?	arco	See Language page
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material				missing									See Language page
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	gasiru	gasiru		unique					may be related to 'bark' (tree)	Simplex			See Language page
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	pisana	pisana		loan - WW		%pisana	WW	%pisana	probably originally from Port bicho 'small animal'; compare E. Tukano, (e.g. Desano pisana); Arawak (e.g. Tariana pisána); Carib (Makushi pisana; Pemon pitʃana); Kakua pitʃina. But note Quechua 'broom' pitʃana	Simplex			See Language page
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	kãreña	kãreña		loan - WW		%kara	WW	%karaka	Probably Arawak origin (see Nordenskiold 1922). Tukanoan, e.g. Wanano karaka; Arawak, e.g. Baniwa kaláka; Yanomamo, Nadeb; Macaguan takra, Sikuani wakara	Simplex			See Language page
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	opʉ	opʉ		inheritance?		cf. %apu				Simplex			See Language page
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	suhri	suhri		inheritance									See Language page
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
coca			narcotics	ãpĩ			Unknown					Found Desano, Siriano, Tanimuka	Simplex			See Language page
cook food			food	sora-ri			Unknown					Maybe cognate (or old loan?) Tanimuka	Simplex			See Language page
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology				missing								malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page
dance (generic)			culture-mythology	baja-ri		sing, dance	inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool	bujuwaca	buhuwaca		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Compound	?-dart	hunting and warfare	See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology				missing								In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool				Missing									See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	wʉja	wʉha		missing									See Language page
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology	to'átoré	to'átoré		doubtful loan		Urarina, Jivaroan, Ticuna, Kokama, E. Tukanoan							See Language page
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture				missing								Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool	wẽrẽro	wẽrẽro		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan				Compare similar terms in Carib	Simplex		esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other	pohro	pohro		unknown						Simplex		may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture	péru	péru		loan (into protolanguage?) - WW		%pajaru						prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other	peame	peame	fire, fireplace	inheritance									See Language page
firewood	leña	lenha	other	pea	pea		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan				Also: gũmu 'log'	Simplex			See Language page
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food				missing									See Language page
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	wai wẽhẽriсe	wai wẽhẽriсe		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Compound	(wẽhẽri= to kill)		See Language page
fish poison	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	subsistence tool	nia			Unique						Simplex			See Language page
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool	tʉri	tɯri		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food	ãrũñe	ãrũñe		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan					Simplex		usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food	poga	poga		inheritance/sem shift	Proto-East Tukanoan	from 'powder'				Simplex		agriculture	See Language page
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology	tẽrẽdiru	tẽrẽdiru		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex		multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food	waibʉgʉ	waibʉgʉ		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Other complex	Classifier?	Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page
genipap			culture-mythology				Missing									See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	sĩporã (ghost, heart)	sĩpoɾã		semantic shift		heart'							See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	koaru	koaru		inheritance?		Nheengatu			See also similar forms in Arawak	Simplex			See Language page
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool	sũgũru	sũgũru		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex		esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology				missing						Simplex			See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool	kaja (Chacon14)	kaja (Chacon14)		inheritance									See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool	gararu	gararu		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex		agriculture?	See Language page
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	peagʉ	peagʉ		calque		from 'fire'			from wood/fire; possible calque - common complex form among Vaupes languages	Derived	wood/fire-?		See Language page
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	pʉgʉ̃	pɯgɯ̃		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	sapea	sapea		loan		Port chapeu			Port origin; Possibly via Arawak; Baniwa tsapéwa; Pemon sapewa	Simplex			See Language page
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology				inheritance								Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics				missing									See Language page
honey	miel	mel	food	mome	mome		inheritance								only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page
house			other	wihi	wihi		inheritance									See Language page
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	waimʉrã	waimɯrã		unique					Probably calqued in region	Compound	wai 'animal, fish'		See Language page
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	wíririmiji	wíririmihi		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan				Inherited complex form or calque	Compound	wíriri-mihi; cut-?		See Language page
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress	wasuru	wasuru		Missing									See Language page
machete	machete	facão	culture-material	matamijĩ	matamihĩ		unique						Compound			See Language page
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	wejabu	wehabu		inheritance									See Language page
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology	cõrã	cõrã											See Language page
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology	tarusu	tarusu		unknown					Also: carisu	Simplex			See Language page
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	papera	papera		loan		Span/Port 'papel'	WW	%papera	Spanish/Portuguese > Nheengatu > others? Ninam liplo (metathesis); Arawak (e.g. Yucuna papera); Macaguan papéna; Tukanoan (Cubeo papela, Wanano papera pû, Tukano papéra); Nheengatu papera; Yanomam, papʰeo	Simplex			See Language page
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other				Missing									See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other				missing									See Language page
plate	plato	prato	culture-material				missing									See Language page
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation				missing									See Language page
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	soro	soro	clay pot	inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan				Also: komesoro 'metal pot'	Simplex	Classifier -bu		See Language page
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology	ñasa	ñasa		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	pũ gubu	pũ gubu		inheritance									See Language page
salt	sal	sal	food	moa	moa		inheritance/sem shift?					original meaning 'salt plant'	Simplex			See Language page
school	escuela	escola	acculturation	escuela	eskuela		missing									See Language page
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology	cũmu	kũmu		loan - WW	Proto-East Tukanoan	%kumu				Simplex		In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress	sapatu	sapatu		missing									See Language page
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material				missing									See Language page
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation	surara	surara		loan - WW		%surara							See Language page
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology	bayari	bayari	sing, dance	inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex	Yes		See Language page
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	ñosẽrimiji	ñosẽrimihi		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan				Or maybe family-internal loan	Compound	ñosẽri 'spear (v.)'		See Language page
spearthrower			subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food	wera	wera		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material				missing									See Language page
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	gãrʉ	gãrʉ		missing									See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food	ñumucu	ñumuku		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan				Doubtful: found in 3 intermarrying ET languages and Tariana; loan Tuk > Tariana?	Simplex		agriculture	See Language page
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology	pãmu	pãmu		missing									See Language page
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material	mujire	muhire		inheritance									See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food	wãtiquéru	wãtikéru		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan				Doubtful, only attested Desano and Tukano (in contact)			word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page
tobacco (native)			narcotics	muru			inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture				missing								use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool	ñama	ñama		Calque, direction unknown		Arawak?			deer=tripod occurs in all regional ET and where attested in Arawak lgs	Simplex		agriculture	See Language page
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool	nima	nima		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan	cf. %namo				Simplex		hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page
wax	cera	cera	other				missing									See Language page
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	sihburu	sihburu		unknown					Also: pamusihburu	Simplex		agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology				missing								a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page

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Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source	Etymology Notes	General Notes
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	no		Miller 1999, p. 35-56
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no		Miller 1999, p. 88
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	yes	Desano makes use of verb compounding to enrich and expand the meaning of a clause.	Miller 1999, p. 88		distinguished by stress
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	yes	Desano has many bound affixes that could be called either derivational affixes or dependent verb roots that can only occur combined with another verb root to form a stem.	Miller 1999, p. 89-90		there is a set of verb affixes that are always bound like doing something with your hand,, ex: carry-bend = kneel. 'boʔ-'
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes	Desano has two auxiliary verbs, ii- 'do' and wa- 'go'.	Miller 1999, p. 87		aux verbs carry person and number
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	yes	ex. Tense evidental markers carry information about tense, subject, and how speaker obtained this info	Miller 1999, p. 64
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	yes	ex. Remote past is distingueshed from recent past by position of stress	Miller 1999, p. 70
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes	The obligatory elements in the main verb are the verb stem, a tense-evidential suffix, and a suffix which carries subject agreement. In between these can occur almost any number of modal, aspectual, and other markers, including the negative.	Miller 1999, p. 63		The verb morphology of the language is quite extensive with suffixes expressing emphasis, direction of movement, causation, benefaction, negation, contraexpectation, as well as evidentiality, aspect, tense-mood, and person-number. Miller,p.6
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Miller 1999, p. 5
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes	suffixes exclusively	Miller 1999, p. 5
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Miller 1999, p. 5
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	yes		Miller 1999, p.111
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	no	not indicated/expected	Miller 1999
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	no	Nouns are considered to be incorporated when they form one stress group with the verb and when nothing comes between the noun and the verb.	Miller 1999, p. 108		The change in meaning and the fact that this process is no longer productive indicates that noun incorporation has been lexicalized in Desano.
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no		Miller 1999, p. 110
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	no		Miller 1999, p. 35
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	3	The case markers in Desano are the specific object marker -re, the locative marker -ge, and bẽrã 'with, accompaniment, intrument'.	Miller 1999, p. 57		Both -ge and -bẽrã may be followed by -re.
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no		Miller 1999, p. 57
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	yes		Miller 1999, p. 57		The specific object marker -re occurs at the end of the noun phrase and marks specific, referential partients of transitive verbs, experienceers, and spatial-temporal expressions to establish a new frame and give further references to that frame.
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no		Miller 1999, p. 57
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Miller 1999, p. 57		The case markers in Desano are the specific object marker -re, the locative marker -ge, and -bẽrã 'with, accompaniment, intrument'/ Both -ge and -bẽrã may be followed by -re.
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Miller 1999, p. 57
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Miller 1999, p. 57
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Miller 1999, p. 57
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Miller 1999, p. 57
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	yes	The marker -bẽrã 'with' indicates instrument and accompaniment or coparticipation.	Miller 1999, p.62
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no		Miller 1999, p. 21-34, 169		Participants are frequently introduced with yuhu- 'one' which seems to mean 'a certain' to indicate that that referent is a definite person or thing, although probably not known to the listener preciously, and that it is going to be salient in the discour
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no		Miller 1999, p. 31
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	yes	The three general classifiers are used to refer to nonspecific items and frequently are employed to form new expressions for foreign objects; -yẽ, -pẽ, and dõhõ 'thing'.	Miller 1999, p. 43-44		The article dipa- seems to have the meaning of the indefinite article 'a'
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	yes		Miller 1999, p. 30		They may occur as head in a noun phrase or as a modifier of a head noun.
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Miller 1999, p. 63-87
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	2	proximate 'this' and distant 'that'; 'the other'	Miller 1999, p. 31		Demonstrative pronouns distinguish between animate and inanimate, and two degrees of distance.They are inflected for number and gender or class.
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		yes	for inanimate demonstrative pronouns- thing vs location	Miller 1999, p. 31
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes		Miller 1999, p.21
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	7		Miller 1999, p.21
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes		Miller 1999, p. 35
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	yes	for nonhuman animates sex is assumed as male unless the word for women is added	Miller 1999, p.21
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Miller 1999, p.21
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	yes		Miller 1999, p.21
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	yes		Miller 1999, p. 30
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no		Miller 1999, p. 35
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes	Inanimate nouns can also be subdivided into classes according to their inherent characteristics, in particular their shape.	Miller 1999, p. 23
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no		Miller 1999, p. 43		there ae three general classifers that are often used for new objects
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no		Miller 1999, p. 46
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	yes	There are several derivational suffixes in Desano that are used to derive verbs from nouns. The most productive is -kɨ that makes a possessive verb out of a noun.	Miller 1999, p. 110, 36		Nouns are simple nouns or forms derived from verbs by the addition of the deverbilizers -ri and -ro to form inanimate nouns, and the nominalizing suffixes -gi (masc sing), -go (fem sing), and -rã (animate plural) to form animate nouns.
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	yes	Collective animate nouns require the singularizing suffix -bɨ̃́˜ to refer to a single member. Some inherently plural inanimate nouns take the same singularizing suffix as the classifier for that category.	Miller 1999, p. 23, 53		some inherently plural animate nouns have singularizing suffixes
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes	The majority of inanimate nouns are pluralized by the addition of the suffix -ri. The majority of animate, nonhuman nouns use the plural suffix -a.	Miller 1999, p. 52
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Miller 1999, p. 52
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Miller 1999, p. 52
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no	For nouns that are spherical in shape and that take the classifier -ru, 'dipa' is inserted between the noun and the classifier to form the plural.	Miller 1999, p. 52		Ex. goru 'ball', godiparu 'balls'
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no		Miller 1999, p. 52
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no		Miller 1999, p. 30
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	yes	the marker '-sã' is used when the speaker knows the hearer is aware of the people that would be with the person whose name is given	Miller 1999, p. 53		Marker -sã 'also' gives a plural meaning 'in addition to the others'
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no		Miller 1999, p. 46
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	yes	Desano speakers use a quintenary system.	Miller 1999, p. 46	Most Desanos now use the Spanish numbering system after the number 'four'
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no		Miller 1999, p. 46
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no		Miller 1999, p. 46
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	yes	five= 'one hand'	Miller 1999, p. 46		yuhu 'one', bõhõtõ-ki-bãhã- 'hand'
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Miller 1999, p. 46		They count up to five on one hand, then start at six by saying 'one hand plus one' up to ten. From there they count on their feet up to the number twenty.
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no	numerals go up to 20, aftewards it is 'a lot'	Miller 1999, p. 46		baha 'a lot'
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no		Miller 1999, p. 125
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no		Miller 1999, p. 125
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		yes		Miller 1999, p. 30
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no		Miller 1999, p. 30
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Miller 1999, p. 30
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Miller 1999, p. 30
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	yes	formed by adding 'basi' self to personal pronouns	Miller 1999, p. 30
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	yes	small set of roots that never occur with verb endings but only classifers	Miller 1999, p. 51
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	yes		Miller 1999, p. 51		These modifiers usually follow the head noun. However, they most often replace the head as a relative clause or a nominalized form followed by a classifier.
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	yes	Action nominalizations are obtained with the deverbalizing suffix -ri or its past form -ra.	Miller 1999, p. 142		less productively, -ro can also form an action nominalization.
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes	Agent, subject, and animate patient nominalizations all involve the animate deverbilizers.	Miller 1999, p. 142		There can be ambiguity between agent and animate patient nominalizations. For example, teacher and student are the same word.
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	yes	For patient and instrument nominalizations, the nominalizing suffix precedes the appropriate classifiers.	Miller 1999, p. 143		For nominalized verbs in the present, -ri precedes the classifier. For past nominalizations some classifiers take -di and some take -ra.
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	yes	There are several derivational suffixes in Desano that are used to derive verbs from nouns. The most productive is -ki that makes a possessive verb out of a noun.	Miller 1999, p.110-111		Also, -ye added to a noun has the meaning of 'give'. Verbs derived with -ye are bitransitive.
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no	The marker bẽrã ‘with’ indicates instrument and accompaniment or coparticipation.	Miller 1999, p. 62
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Miller 1999, p. 49
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Miller 1999, p. 49
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	yes	the possive marker and possive pronoun can be contracted	Miller 1999, p. 49
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	no		Miller 1999, p. 49
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no		Miller 1999, p. 49		The possessive pronouns are the same as the other personal pronouns in Desano.
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Miller 1999, p. 49
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	yes	Alienable possession used the case marker ya (genitive)	Miller 1999, p. 49
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no		Miller 1999, p.49
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	yes		Miller 1999, p. 49		The possessed form for '(my) father' is yɨ pagɨ, and the vocative form is aʔɨ; the possessed form for '(my) older sister' is yɨ t̃ĩgo, and the vocative is diʔo.
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	no	body parts (ex. Head) can be used with the alienable possesion marker but it is more common to promote the owner as one of the major grammatical elements	Miller 1999, p. 48
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Miller 1999, p.21-23
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	yes	The voiced stops that occur in syllables that are intrinsically nonnasal are prenasalized when they appear word intitially or follow a nasal morpheme.	Miller, Marion. 1999. Desano grammar: Studies in the languages of Colombia 6. Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington Publications in Linguistics, 132. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Miller 1999, p. 10, 12		The glottal fricative /h/ and the glottal stop /ʔ/ occur only intervocalically. They are followed by the echo of the vowel that precedes them.
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no		Miller 1999, p. 9-15
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	no	not indicated/expected	Miller 1999, p. 9-15
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no	not indicated/expected	Miller 1999, p. 9-15
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Miller 1999, p. 15
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	yes	CV (most common), CVʔ, V, Vʔ.	Miller 1999, p. 15		possible, not the norm
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Miller 1999, p. 15
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	yes	high tone always falls on stressed syllable, others are mid and low, stress/accent pattern	Miller 1999, p.15		The phonological word is composed of one to five syllables with one pricipal stress.
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	yes	The stressed syllable has high pitch. All others have mid or low.	Miller 1999, p. 9,15
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	yes	morphemes are either inherently nasal or oral or are unmarked for nasality (only suffixes)	Miller 1999, p. 13-14		There is no grammatical or phonological pattern by means of which one can predict whether a morpheme will be inherently nasal, oral, or unspecified for nasality. This feature must be marked in the lexicon.
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	yes	spreads to the right. only suffixes unmarked for nasality, and it is blocked by inherently oral vowels or consonants	Miller 1999, p. 13
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		yes	vowel lowering- affects limited number of verb suffixes	Miller 1999, p. 18		Vowel harmony, involving vowel lowering, affects a limited number of verb suffixes (Kaye 1970:186-88): -di- (past nominative) changes to -de-, -bi- (negative) changes to -be-, -bu- becomes -bo-, -ku- to -ko-, and -yu- to -yo-.
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	yes		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		yes		Miller 1999, p. 30
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no		Miller 1999, p. 30
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Miller 1999, p. 30
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Miller 1999, p. 30
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Miller 1999, p. 30
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	yes		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	yes	Nominalizations formed with the deverbalizer -ro may function as object complement of desiderative verbs.	Miller 1999, p.147		The verb root is either gãb˜e- 'want' or a verb root plus the desiderative -dia.
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	yes	follows noun or phrase to ask a question about the expression	Miller 1999, p. 8, 133
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	yes	suffix replaces person, gender, and number suffixes	Miller 1999, p. 8
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Miller 1999, p. 8
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	no		Miller 1999, p. 8
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no		Miller 1999, p. 131
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	no		Miller 1999, p.135
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	yes		Miller 1999, p.135
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	yes		Miller 1999, p. 7
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	no		Miller 1999, p. 7
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Miller 1999, p. 7
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Miller 1999, p. 7
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		yes		Miller 1999, p. 7
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no		Miller 1999, p. 7
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	yes		Miller 1999, p. 154
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	yes		Miller 1999, p. 157
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	yes		Miller 1999, p. 157
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	no	there are virtually no predicate adjectives	Miller 1999, p. 125		Adjective concepts are normally expressed by nominalizing a stative verb.
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no		Miller 1999, p. 125
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	no	Predicate nominals consist minimally of a predicate noun phrase followed by an affirmative or negative form of the verb ár̃ĩ/ãʔr̃̃ĩ- 'be'	Miller 1999, p.125
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes	Most of the clauses functioning as the complement of other clauses are nominalized and may be viewed as headless relative clauses.	Miller 1999, p.145
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	yes		Miller 1999, p.145
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	yes		Miller 1999, p.148-149
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		yes		Miller 1999, p.148
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	yes		Miller 1999, p.148		The same nominalizing suffixes are used, whether the nominalized clause functions as subject, direct object, indirect object, oblique object, possessor equative predicate of a predicate nominal, or noun phrase constituent.
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	yes		Miller 1999, p. 123
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes		Miller 1999, p. 125
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	no		Miller 1999, p. 125
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Miller 1999, p. 125
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Miller 1999, p. 125
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no		Miller 1999, p.63-75
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	no		Miller 1999, p.48-49
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	yes		Miller 1999, p. 125
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	no		Miller 1999, p. 125
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	yes		Miller 1999, p. 125
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no		Miller 1999, p. 125
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes		Miller 1999, p. 119
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	yes		Miller 1999, p. 118
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	yes		Miller 1999, p. 118
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes		Miller 1999, p. 120
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no		Miller 1999, p.121
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no		Miller 1999, p.121
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	yes		Miller 1999, p. 117
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	yes	possesor ascension and accusative of interest	Miller 1999, p. 117
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Miller 1999, p. 114
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes	add -pu or -po	Miller 1999, p. 115
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	yes	the second syllable or final vowel is replaced with bo/bõ/b˜u or o/u	Miller 1999, p. 114
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	yes	add verb root dore- to another verb root	Miller 1999, p. 115
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	yes	verb root plus -kɨ̃ followed by the verb ii-	Miller 1999, p. 116
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	yes		Miller 1999, p.115-116
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	yes	Valence increasing operations are causative, benefactive, and possessor upgrading.	Miller 1999, p.113
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	yes		Miller 1999, p. 69
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	yes	recent (-a) and remote (-ra)	Miller 1999, p. 69		Desano distinguished between remote and recent past and has a three-way system of marking future tense.
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	yes		Miller 1999, p. 70		3-way system of marking for future tense; 'might', 'probably will', and 'future'
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		yes		Miller 1999, p. 71
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Miller 1999, p. 63
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Miller 1999, p. 63
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		yes	remote is distinguished from present in the visual evidential by the position of stress	Miller 1999, p. 69
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Miller 1999, p. 63
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	yes	The usual affix to indicate aciton away from the speaker is -a and towards the speaker is -ri (present) or -ra (-ri + -a past). The directional suffixes can be attached to any of the directional verbs.	Miller 1999, p. 80-81	The morphology of the directional formatives, or deictic markers, suggests that they are derived from the verbs wa- 'go' and ari- 'come'.	When these suffixes occur with 'duha' (remain at one's base), they indicate returning to one's base./ Another directional suffix -bia (omnilocative), noted by Kaye (1970:71). It has limitted distribution.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	yes	The visual evidential lets the hearer know that the speaker himself experienced the event or was a witness to it. It is used also to express truths or states that the speaker can attest to from his experience.	Miller 1999, p. 65		The verb kari- with the visual evidential indicates that the speaker obtained his information from senses other than the visual. (the verb can occur alone but most often occurs with other verbs)
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no		Miller 1999, p. 64		see above notes on kari- (125-N)
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	yes	The inferred evidential is composed of a verb phrase with the verb árĩ- 'be' acting as an auxiliary suffixed by the recent or remote past marker and verb agreement.	Miller 1999, p. 67	Some Desano speakers feel that the assumed would be used if the event had just happened and the inferred used when referring to it later.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	yes		Miller 1999, p. 66		There are no observed examples of the hearsay evidential occuring in first person, but occasionally it occurs with second person. Most commonly, this evidential is used in connection with a past action.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no		Miller 1999, p. 64
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	yes	"opinion suffix"	Miller 1999, p. 68		When -sõ is attached to the end of the verb or verb nominalization, it almost always is followed by the speaker saying, 'I think' or 'He thought', and it is about something that hasn't happened or a state of affairs.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		yes		Miller 1999, p. 64
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	yes		Miller 1999, p. 64
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Miller 1999, p. 64
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Miller 1999, p. 64
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	yes	multiple forms	Miller 1999, p. 72		The imperative suffix replaces the evidential and subject agreement markers in the independent verb..
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	yes	courtesy form	Miller 1999, p. 72
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	no		Miller 1999, p. 73
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	yes	called exhortative	Miller 1999, p. 72		exhortative (p); -rã 'Let's', -biri-kã-rã 'Let's not…'
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	yes		Miller 1999, p. 81		The variation in form is due to vowel harmony.
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		no		Miller 1999, p. 81		The potential, dubitative, frustrative, desiderative, and abilitative moods are coded by a series of verbal suffixes that follow the verb root and presede the evidentials.
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no		Miller 1999, p. 81
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	yes		Miller 1999, p. 81
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no		Miller 1999, p. 81
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no		Miller 1999, p. 81
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no		Miller 1999, p. 81
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	yes		Miller 1999, p. 81
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	yes		Miller 1999, p. 77, 86		The suffix -gua 'do as a habit' is used in the sense of talking about whether or not that person will do an action and saying he probably will because he customarily does it.
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	yes		Miller 1999, p. 73
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no	all future tense is in irrealis	Miller 1999, p. 71
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no		Miller 1999, p.84-85		would INTESITY as expressed by suffixes (3) included in this? Inclination is to say not (bc pos and neg) but notes say "speaker's feelings"
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	yes		Miller 1999, p.113		There are four morphological causatives.
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no		Miller 1999, p.64
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		yes	SOV is most popular order	Miller 1999, p. 2
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no		Miller 1999, p. 2
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no		Miller 1999, p. 2
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	no		Miller 1999, p. 2
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no		Miller 1999, p. 2
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Miller 1999, p. 3
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Miller 1999, p. 3
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes		Miller 1999, p. 5
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no		Miller 1999, p. 5
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	yes		Miller 1999, p. 4
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	no		Miller 1999, p. 4
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes		Miller 1999, p. 5
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no		Miller 1999, p. 5
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes		Miller 1999, p. 4
Word Order	Noun-Num		no	if the number follow the head noun, they preced the classifer	Miller 1999, p.4
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes		Miller 1999, p. 6
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Miller 1999, p. 6
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no		Miller 1999, p. 6
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Miller 1999, p.158-159
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Miller 1999, p. 131		The interrogative pronouns used to form questions either begin the sentence or directly follow the topic.

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Current Population (speakers)	Former Population Estimate	Subsistence Preference	Density	Sedentism	Ecotome	Marriage Pattern	Notes	Source
1800	medium	AG	medium	sedentary	Small rivers	Linguistic exogamy

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