Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Kotiria

Family: Tukanoan
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: gvc
Location: 1.08°, -69.57°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information

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Data Sources: Chacon, Thiago. 2014. A Revised Proposal of Proto-Tukanoan Consonants and Tukanoan Family Classification. International Journal of American Linguistics 80.3: 275-322. Huber, R. and Reed, R. 1992. Comparative vocabulary: selected words in indigenous languages of Colombia. ILV, Bogotá. Stenzel, Kristine S. 2004. A reference grammar of Wanano. Ph.D. Disseration (Linguistics). Boulder University of Colorado. Stenzel, Kristine S. 2007. Glottalization and other suprasegmental features in Wanano. International Journal of American Linguistics 73.3:331-366. Stenzel, Kristine S. 2013. A Reference Grammar of Kotiria (Wanano). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Waltz, Nathan E (compiler). 2007. Diccionario Bilingüe. Wanano o Guanano-Español. Español-Wanano o Guanano. Bogotá: Editorial Fundación para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Marginados.

Basic Vocabulary (192)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar	sã	sã	inheritance			See Language page
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	~bari	mãɾĩ	inheritance	E-W Tuk	no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted	See Language page
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	yʉ'ʉ/ jʉ	jʉʔʉ/ jʉ	inheritance	E-W Tuk	For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms	See Language page
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	~bʉsa	mʉ̃sã	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	~bʉ'ʉ/~bʉ	~bʉʔʉ/~bʉ	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	tίnã (stenz)	tίnã (stenz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	tiro (he); ticoro (she) (Waltz)	tíɾo; tikoɾo	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	be on top of: pisa	pisa	inheritance			See Language page
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar	tjoa (Waltz)	tjoa (Waltz)	unknown			See Language page
all	todo	todos	other	pe'ri	peʔɾi	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
and	y	e	grammar	ã jichᵾ; ã jiro; ã joa; tuhsᵾ (all Waltz)	ã jiʧʉ; ã jiɾo; ã joa; tuhsʉ (all Waltz)	unknown			See Language page
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body	agã curiaca; dahporo dohsari curiaca (all Waltz)	agã kuɾiaka; dahpoɾo dohsaɾi kuɾiaka (all Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body	cjãroca (Waltz)	kjãɾoka (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	niti; pichaca nuja (Waltz)	niti; piʧaka nuja (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
at	en, a	em, a	location			missing			See Language page
back	espalda	costas	body	sucunu	sukunu	inheritance			See Language page
bad	mal	mal	quality	be bad: ~ya	ɲã	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
bark	corteza	casca	environment	pari cahsaro (Waltz)	paɾi kahsaɾo (Waltz)	inheritance			See Language page
belly	barriga	barriga	body	pha	pʰáá (stenzel)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location	docai; docabᵾ (all Waltz)	dokai; dokabᵾ (all Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
big	grande	grande	quality	bʉhu; phi	bʉhu; pʰíí	unknown			See Language page
bite	morder	morder	body	baka; ~kho'o	baʰka; kʰõʔṍ	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
black	negro	preto	colour	ñina (Waltz)	jina (Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
blood	sangre	sangue	body	di	díí (stenz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
blow	soplar	soprar	body	phuti	pʰuʰtí	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body	ñᵾchᵾcᵾ cohã	jᵾʧᵾkᵾ kohã (Waltz)	inheritance	Branch 2, E Tuk		See Language page
bone	hueso	osso	body	~kho'a	~kʰoʔa	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	~pe	~pe	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	yajeri nana (Waltz)	jajeɾi nana (Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	~hʉ	h˜ṹ	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body	yahcara (Waltz)	jahkaɾa (Waltz)	inheritance	Branch 2, E Tuk		See Language page
child	niño, niña	criança	human	~ba('a)	~ba(ʔa)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
climb	subir	subir	motion	to move upward/go uphill: ~baha/ -~baha	bãhã/ -bãhã	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment	bu'i-ri	buʔi-ri	inheritance			See Language page
cold	frío	frio	quality	yʉsʉri sãana (Waltz)	jʉsʉɾi sãana (Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
come	venir	vir	motion	ta/-ta'a	táa/-táʔa	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	do'a	doʔá	inheritance			See Language page
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality	potocã (Waltz)	potokã (Waltz)	unique			See Language page
count	contar	contar	mental	quihõna; yahura (all Waltz)	kihõna; jahuɾa (all Waltz)	unique			See Language page
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	tiira (Waltz)	tiiɾa (Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	be; ~kha; yʉ'so; to cut open: waye	kʰã; jʉʔsó; wajé	unique			See Language page
day	día	dia	time	~dʉba	~dʉba	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	yari	jari	inheritance	cognate Piratapuyo		See Language page
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	sa'a; dig into: dʉte	saʔá; dʉʰte	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
dingo/wolf			fauna			missing			See Language page
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	wete tira (Waltz)	wete tiɾa (Waltz)	unique			See Language page
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	~kha'a	kʰãʔã	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	~si'di	~siʔdi	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
dry	seco	seco	quality	puhsia; puhsiria (both esp. For fruit) (Waltz)	puhsia; puhsiɾia (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality	u'ru	u'ru	missing			See Language page
dust	polvo	poeira	environment	dihta manari; dihta me; me (all Waltz)	dihta manaɾi; dihta me; me (all Waltz)	inheritance	Branch 2, E Tuk		See Language page
ear	oreja	orelha	body	~kha'bo	~kʰaʔbo	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	dihta; dʉhtero; yahpa (all Waltz)	dihta; dʉhteɾo; jahpa (all Waltz)	inheritance			See Language page
eat	comer	comer	body	chʉ	čʉ	unique			See Language page
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	die	die	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
eye	ojo	olho	body	khapa	kʰapa	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body	tᵾ (Waltz)	tᵾ (Waltz)	unknown			See Language page
fall	caer	cair	motion	bora	boɾa	inheritance			See Language page
far	lejos	longe	quality	be far away: pase; to be far: yoa	paʰse; joa	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	se (Waltz)	se (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	pɨ'kɨ, bãĩ́	pɨ'kɨ, bãĩ́	inheritance			See Language page
fear	miedo	medo	mental	cuira (Waltz)	kuiɾa (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	phoa	pʰoa	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
fingernail	uña	unha	body	wamo sero (hand); dahpo sero (foot) (all Waltz)	wamo seɾo; dahpo seɾo (all Waltz)	inheritance			See Language page
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	pichaca (Waltz)	piʧaka (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
fish	xx	xx	fauna	wa'i	waʔi	inheritance			See Language page
flow	fluir	fluir	motion	bɨ'rɨ-	bɨ'rɨ-	inheritance			See Language page
flower	flor	flor	environment	cohoro (Waltz)	kohoɾo (Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
fly	volar	voar	motion	wʉ	wʉ	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment	buiriro (Waltz)	buiɾiɾo (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
foot	pie	pé	body	da'po	daʔpo	inheritance	E Tuk, at least Branch 2		See Language page
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	dicha	diʰʧá	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
good	bueno	bom	quality	hai	hai	unique			See Language page
green	verde	verde	quality	~wia	~wia	unknown	possible cognate Koreguaje		See Language page
grow	crecer	crescer	state	bʉkʉ; ~basa	bʉʰkʉ; mãʰsã	inheritance	E Tuk; compare Ocaina buuku		See Language page
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	phoa	pʰoa	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
hand	mano	mão	body	~wabo	~wabo	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	dapo	daʰpú (stenz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	thʉ'o	tʰʉʔo	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
heart	corazón	coração	body	yahiri~pho'da	jahiri~pʰoʔda	inheritance			See Language page
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	nᵾcᵾ nina (Waltz)	nᵾkᵾ nina (Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	nᵾona (Waltz)	nᵾona (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	~kha	kʰã	inheritance	Branch 2, E Tuk		See Language page
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	khʉa	kʰʉa	inheritance	Branch 2, E Tuk		See Language page
hot	caliente	quente	quality	si	sίί (stenz)	inheritance			See Language page
how?	como	como	grammar	do'se	doʰʔse	inheritance	Branch 2, E Tuk		See Language page
if	si	se	grammar	~pateni	pãʰtẽnĩ	unique			See Language page
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	phʉ'icha; ~sa	pʰʉʔiʧa; sã́ã́	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	tᵾ misi da (Waltz)	tᵾ misi da (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body	~wiki	w˜ĩkĩ	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
kill	matar	matar	impact	~waha	~wahá (entire word nas.) (stenz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	~basi	~basi	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
lake	lago	lago	environment	pari	paɾi	unique			See Language page
laugh	reír	rir	mental	bʉhʉ	bʉhʉ́	inheritance	Branch 2, E Tuk		See Language page
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	~phu	~pʰu	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	cõ bᵾhᵾsehe (Waltz)	kõ bᵾhᵾsehe (Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	~yʉchʉ; da'po	jʉ̃ʰʧṹ; daʔpó	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	~kho (progessive use); ~khʉ'a; sʉka; yosa (sounds similar to Makuna)	kʰõ; kʰʉ̃ʔã; sʉʰka; yoʰsa	loan (into protolanguage?); inheritance	Arawak		See Language page
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	oroca sitero (Waltz)	oɾoka siteɾo (Waltz)	unique			See Language page
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body	kha'ti	kʰaʔti	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
liver	hígado	figado	body	ñahma sahwaro (Waltz)	jahma sahwaɾo (Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	yoara (Waltz)	joaɾa (Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	khʉ'a (plural form)	kʰʉʔá	inheritance	E-W Tuk	order Phtiraptera	See Language page
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	yajeri naria; yajeri sãaria (all Waltz)	jajeri naɾia; jajeɾi sãaɾia (all Waltz)	inheritance	Branch 2, E Tuk		See Language page
man/male	hombre	homem	human	~bʉ	~bʉ	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	di'i	diʔi	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
moon	luna	lua	environment	sʉ̃ ñami macariro (Waltz)	sʉ̃ ñami makaɾiɾo (Waltz)	inheritance			See Language page
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship			missing			See Language page
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	tʉ̃cʉ (Waltz)	tʉ̃kʉ (Waltz)	inheritance			See Language page
mouth	boca	boca	body	dʉse	dʉʰsέ (stenz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
name	nombre	nome	human	~waba	w˜ãmã	loan into protolanguage, direction unknown	Boran, Witotoan, Tukanoan		See Language page
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body			missing			See Language page
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	to be close by: -ba'ro; to be nearby: du'tu; ka'a; thua; be next to: kha'a	-baʰɾo; duʰʔtu; kaʔa; tʰúa; kʰaʔa	inheritance			See Language page
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	wamʉa (Waltz)	wamʉa (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
new	nuevo	novo	quality	~wa'ba	~waʔba	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
night	noche	noite	time	~yabi	~jabi	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
no/not	no	não	grammar	~de	nẽ	unknown			See Language page
nose	nariz	nariz	body	~ke	~ke	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
old	viejo	velho	quality	bʉcʉ; mʉna; panopʉ macari; for persons: bʉcʉro (m.), quiro bʉcoro (f.) (all Waltz)	bʉkʉ; mʉna; panopʉ makaɾi; bʉkʉɾo (m.), kiɾo bʉkoɾo (f.) (all Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
one	uno	um	number	kʉ̃ (stenz)	kʉ̃ (stenz)	inheritance	Branch 2, E Tuk		See Language page
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	to open wide (intran.): bʉkʉ	bʉʰkʉ	unique			See Language page
other	otro	outro	grammar	pa (Stenzel); pairo (esp. For persons) (Waltz)	pá; paiɾo	doubtful loan	Arawak		See Language page
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body			missing			See Language page
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	~basa/~basʉ	~basa/~basʉ	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	mᵾtana; mᵾtona; ña tihãhna; tihãna; dahra tihãna (between two fingers) (all Waltz)	mᵾtana; mᵾtona; ja tihãhna; tihãna; dahɾa tihãna (all Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	coro (Waltz)	koɾo (Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
red	rojo	vermelho	colour	~so'a	~soʔa	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body	poto (Waltz)	poto (Waltz)	unique	cognate Piratapuyo		See Language page
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	~ba'a	~baʔa	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
root	raíz	raiz	flora	nʉhco (Waltz)	nʉhko (Waltz)	inheritance	Andoke		See Language page
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	ba	báa	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
sand	arena	areia	environment	padʉro (Waltz)	padʉɾo (Waltz)	unknown			See Language page
say	decir	dizer	mental	dĩ-	dĩ-	inheritance			See Language page
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact	ñacana; waquĩ nina (all Waltz)	jakana; wakĩ nina (all Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
see	ver	ver	mental	~yʉ	~jʉ	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	sio	sio	unknown	cognate Piratapuyo		See Language page
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	phicha	pʰiʧa	semantic shift			See Language page
short	corto	curto	quality	yahpa curero; yahpa wacũnu (Waltz)	jahpa kuɾeɾo; jahpa wakũnu (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	comapariaca (Waltz)	komapaɾiaka (Waltz)	inheritance			See Language page
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental	hikue	hiʰkue	unknown			See Language page
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	duhi/-duhi	duhi/-duhi	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
skin	piel	pele	body	ka'sa	kaʔsa	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
sky	cielo	céu	environment	~bʉa; me sehe; mᵾano	mʉ̃ã (Stenzel); me sehe; mᵾano (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	~khari	~kʰari	inheritance	E-W Tuk; Compare Northern Emberá - "kãaĩ́"		See Language page
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	~ba('a); da	~ba(ʔa); dáá	inheritance	E Tuk?		See Language page
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	hu	húú (stenz)	unique			See Language page
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	~wihi	w˜ĩh˜ĩ	inheritance	E Tuk	primarily transitive	See Language page
spit	escupir	cuspir	body	chahcho putira; chahcho puti sãahna (to spit in something) (all Waltz)	ʧahʧo putiɾa; ʧahʧo puti sãahna (all Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	to separate: -boro; to divide in half: wa'chu	-boɾo; waʔʧú	unknown; unique			See Language page
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	ña pura; tʉ pura (Waltz)	ja puɾa; tʉ puɾa (Waltz)	unknown			See Language page
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact	phu'a; si'o	pʰuʔ'a; siʔo	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	duku/-ruku	duʰku/-ɾuʰku	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
star	estrella	estrela	environment	mʉano macaria; ñahpichohaca (all Waltz)	mʉano makaɾia; jahpikhohaka (all Waltz)	unique			See Language page
steal	robar	roubar	other	yacara (Waltz)	jakaɾa (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	yucʉcʉ (Waltz)	jukʉkʉ (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	~ta	tã`ã` (stenz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
suck	chupar	chupar	body	~wibi	w˜ĩmĩ	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
sun	sol	sol	time	sʉ̃ (Waltz)	sʉ̃ (Waltz)	inheritance			See Language page
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body	so witira (Waltz)	so witiɾa (Waltz)	inheritance?			See Language page
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	pjura; wipira (all Waltz)	pjuɾa; wipiɾa (all Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	ba'a (stenz rev)	baʔa (stenz rev)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	~phicho	~pʰičo	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar	ti	ti	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	sẽ bʉtira; pjacʉ pjiriro, pjacʉ pjiricoro (f.) (esp. For a person's body) (all Waltz)	sẽ bʉtiɾa; pjakʉ pjiɾiɾo, pjakʉ pjiɾikoɾo (f.) (all Waltz)	unique			See Language page
thin	delgado	fino	quality	pʉhãna; sẽ minina; pjĩ (person); pari pũ (form); pahri casaro (something thin that covers something) (all Waltz)	pʉhãna; sẽ minina; pjĩ; paɾi pũ; pahɾi kasaɾo (all Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
think	pensar	pensar	mental	thu	tʰu	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
this	este/esta	este	grammar	a'ri	aʔ.rί (stenz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
three	tres	tres	number	tia	tia	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
throat	garganta	garganta	body	wamʉ copa (Waltz)	wamʉ kopa (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	~khoa; -roka	kʰõã; -ɾoʰka	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	wʉpo (Waltz)	wʉpo (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	dʉ'te	dʉʔte	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	~ye'be	~jeʔbe	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
tooth	diente	dente	body	pi	píi (stenz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk; compare Sape piika		See Language page
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other	majare pahara, sariãna	majare pahara, sariãna	inheritance	E Tuk	may be transitive or intransitive	See Language page
two	dos	dois	number	phʉa (stenz rev) pʰʉáro (stenz)	pʰʉa (stenz rev) pʰʉáro (stenz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	chowe	ʧowé	unknown			See Language page
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	~tidi	tĩnĩ	unique			See Language page
water	agua	agua	environment	ko	kóo (stenz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	co waara (Waltz)	ko waaɾa (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	~yaba	~jaba	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	do'se	doʔse	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
where?	donde	onde	grammar	do'se; ~do'o	doʔse; nõʔõ	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
white	blanco	branco	colour	yehsera	jehseɾa	unique	cognate Piratapuyo		See Language page
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	~doa	~doa	inheritance	E Tuk, at least Branch 2		See Language page
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	nãmõ (o hi) (stenz)	nãmõ (o hi) (stenz)	inheritance	E Tuk, at least Branch 2		See Language page
wind	viento	vento	environment	wihnono (Waltz)	wihnono (Waltz)	inheritance	E Tuk		See Language page
wing	ala	asa	body	cjã pʉ dʉpʉ; wʉri dʉpʉ; wʉri pahma (all Waltz)	cjã pʉ dʉpʉ; wʉɾi dʉpʉ; wʉɾi pahma (all Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	~dubi	~dubi	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	da 're (trans.); da 'ra (intrans.)	daʔɾe; daʔɾa	inheritance	Branch 2, E Tuk		See Language page
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body	wʉjo yahari witira; yahari witira (all Waltz)	wʉjo jahaɾi witiɾa; jahaɾi witiɾa (all Waltz)	inheritance	E-W Tuk		See Language page
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	ewʉ (Waltz)	ewʉ (Waltz)	loan (into protolg?), direction unknown	Arawak > Branch 2 ET, e.g. Baniwa éewa		See Language page


1pl.excl
1pl.incl
1sg
2pl
2sg
3pl
3sg
above
again
all
and
ankle
armpit
ash
at
back
bad
bark
belly
below
big
bite
black
blood
blow
boil/pimple
bone
breast
breathe
burn
chew
child
climb
cloud
cold
come
cook
correct/true
count
cry
cut/hack
day
die/be dead
dig
dingo/wolf
dirty
dream
drink
dry
dull/blunt
dust
ear
earth/soil
eat
egg
eye
faeces
fall
far
fat/grease
father
fear
feather
fingernail
fire
fish
flow
flower
fly
fog
foot
fruit
good
green
grow
hair (of head)
hand
head
hear
heart
heavy
hide
hit
hold
hot
how?
if
in/inside
intestines
itch
kill
know/be knowledgeable
lake
laugh
leaf
left/left hand
leg/foot
lie down
lightning
live/be alive
liver
long
louse
lung
man/male
meat/flesh
moon
mother
mountain/hill
mouth
name
nape
near/close
neck
new
night
no/not
nose
old
one
open/uncover
other
pain/painful/sick
person/human being
pound/beat
rain
red
right/right hand
road/path
root
rotten
sand
say
scratch
see
sharp
shoot
short
shoulder
shy/ashamed
sit
skin
sky
sleep
small
smoke
sniff/smell
spit
split
squeeze
stab/pierce
stand
star
steal
stick/wood
stone
suck
sun
sweat
swell
swim
tail
that
thick
thin
think
this
three
throat
throw
thunder
tie up/fasten
tongue
tooth
turn
two
vomit
walk
water
wet
what?
when?
where?
white
who?
wife
wind
wing
woman/female
work
yawn
yellow

Showing 1 to 192 of 192 entries

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (138)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Source	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Food Source	Medicinal	Psychotropic	Traded	Distribution	Dangerous	General Notes
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana	bã'sĩ sõʔ'ã	bã'sĩ sõʔ'ã		inheritance			May be inherited				uncoded		See Language page	1	0	0	0	1	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	shrub
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	bu, boʔso	bu, boʔso		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	so	so		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Throughout Amazonia	no?	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis	co puti sitero (Waltz)	ko puti siteɾo (Waltz)		inheritance		or calque?	Shared at least between Tuyuca, Tukano, Wanano, who all intermarry				relative clause	water-blow-scatter-NMZ	See Language page	1	0	0	0	0	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls	no
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia	se	se		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	no	a tree; not a true grape
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes	pinono dia macariro (Waltz)	pinono dia makaɾiɾo (Waltz), pĩ'dõ-dõ (H&R)		inheritance	East Tukanoan		Most ET languages have same root for boa and anaconda				phrase	river boa'	See Language page	2	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	yes
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	~hu	~hu		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae	bã'tʃɨ̃-iro	bã'tʃɨ̃-iro		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)	~bie	bĩ'ẽ, ~bie		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonian lowlands	no
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	~phabo	pã́'bṍ, ~pʰabo		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread in Amazonia	no
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum	kã'nɨ̃	kã'nɨ̃		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan		Compare Witoto kaní				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	tropical regions, especially river banks	no	plant
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	tree
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia	no
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.	ho	ho, jo'a ho		inheritance?	Proto-Tukanoan	possibly markedness shift from sororoca	Likely family-wide semantic shift from 'bastard plantain' (wild banana look-alike)				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.	so pocanairo (Waltz)	so, so pokanaiɾo (Waltz)		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		~bidiche	mĩnĩʧẽ, bĩ'dĩtʃaka (H&R)		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forests, native to Brazil	no	tree
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba	bacaba fruit	~jʉbʉ		inheritance	At least East Tukanoan, Branch I						uncoded		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	no	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	flies: ~khobada (Stenzel); comanairo (Waltz); wihminairo (Waltz)	kʰõmãnã (Stenzel); komanaiɾo (Waltz); wihminaiɾo (Waltz)		unique			Cognate Wanano and Piratapuyo. Also komanaiɾo, wihminaiɾo (Waltz)				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae	pinono (Waltz)	pinono (Waltz), pĩ'dõ-dõ (H&R)		inheritance	East Tukanoan		Most ET languages have same root for boa and anaconda. Also akaɾiɾo (Waltz)				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	waha (tree, Waltz dict); wa'ha-ka ('gourd', H&R)	waha (tree, Waltz dict); wa'ha-ka ('gourd', H&R)		missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	indigenous gardens	no	plant; tree
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	no	tree
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata				missing							missing		See Language page	2	0	0	0	0		yes
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	tataroairo (Waltz)	tataɾoaiɾo (Waltz)		inheritance	East Tukanoan		attested only Cubeo, Wanano				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris	di'a wa'tʃɨ	di'a wa'tʃɨ		inheritance	East Tukanoan						phrase	river-tapir'	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	no	plant
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium giganteum				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Brazil, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, Guyana	no
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forest, floodplain	no	vine
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca	putu pũ (Waltz)	p'utu (H&R), putu pũ (Waltz)		loan direction unknown - WW		%patu	Wanderwort; shared Arawak (also various others)	WW	%patu		uncoded		See Language page	1	0	0	1	1	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	no	plant
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria	khasipo	kʰasipo		inheritance	East Tukanoan, Branch II						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu	je'se buʔuro	je'se buʔuro		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)	ju'ta	ju'ta		semantic shift	East Tukanoan	original meaning kapok					uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	1	secondary scrub vegetation	no	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura	~pʉ	~pʉ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae	poreroairo (Waltz)	poɾeɾoaiɾo (Waltz)		inheritance	East Tukanoan		Attested Wanano, Desano				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cunuri (tree)	cunuri	cunuri	flora-fauna	Cunurea spruceana				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Amazonia	no
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.	waʔ'dõpĩ	waʔ'dõpĩ		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Amazonia	no
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	~yaba	jã'bã, ~jaba		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna		~yaba	~jaba		inheritance									See Language page
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	die	di'e-ro, d`ié (i lo tone) (stenz)		semantic shift/calque/loan w/in ET?	East Tukanoan	from jaguar + ?					uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Not native; widespread	no
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna		dìé	dìé		inheritance									See Language page
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae	buja; masi sohã buja (red dove) (all Waltz)	buja; masi sohã buja (all Waltz)		inheritance	East Tukanoan		masi sohã buja (red dove)				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family	pato (Spanish loan) (Waltz)	pato (Spanish loan) (Waltz)		loan		Spanish		WW	%patu		uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus	~sa'a	~saʔa		inheritance	East Tukanoan, Branch II						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		yes
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae	quedu (Waltz)	kedu (Waltz)		doubtful loan (into protolg?) - WW	East Tukanoan, Branch II	%kute					uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		wa'i	waʔi		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
fish (large type)	paiche, pirarucú o arapaima	pirarucu	flora-fauna	Arapaima gigas				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	big rivers only	no
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	yes [used to poison people]	shrub/tree
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	nʉhcopeairo (Waltz)	nʉhkopeaiɾo (Waltz), dɨ̃ʔ'kõpea-iro (H&R)		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana				missing							missing		See Language page	1	0	0	0	0	widespread lowland SA	no	shrub
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis	agã (Waltz)	di'ejoʔo, agã (Waltz)		unique			Also di'ejoʔo				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)	tha	tʰáá, tʰa		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões	no
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba	yaja (Waltz)	jaha (Waltz)		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread South America	no
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.	ka'ta bã'hã	ka'ta bã'hã		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Different types have different localized ranges	no
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola	~wi'o	~wiʔo											See Language page
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi	kʰapi	kʰapi		loan - WW		%kaapi	Wanderwort; e.g. Nadahup, Kakua-Nukak, Guahiban, North Arawak	WW	%kapi		uncoded		See Language page	1	0	0	1	0	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	no	vine
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae	kha	kʰa		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	miquinairo (Waltz)	mikinaiɾo (Waltz), bĩkĩdã-iro (H&R)		unique		shared Piratapuyo	Shared with Piratapuyo				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus	cawalu	kawalu		missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens	bia	bia		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	no	plant
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]	~ebo	ẽ'bũ, ẽmõ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	wĩ'bĩ	wĩ'bĩ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan		Compare Arawak, e.g. Baniwa pími				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread	no
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.	jo'a so	jo'a so		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.	~bede	~bede		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)	no
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	yai	jai, jai-ro		doubtful loan into protolanguage, direction unknown		Arawak (Chacon reconstructs); cf. TG *jawar	Compare similar Arawak forms				uncoded		See Language page	1	2	0	0	0		yes
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	large tree
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	no	tree
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae	saná (Waltz)	saná (Waltz)		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.	boka	boka		inheritance		cf. Tukano					uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.	maja (red), daharo (little) (all Waltz)	maha (red), dahaɾo (little) (all Waltz), bã'hã (H&R)		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan	Guahiban	Proto-Guahiban; e.g. Macaguan máha. daharo (small macaw)				uncoded		See Language page	1	1	0	0	1	Widespread Amazonia	no
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	yo	jóó (stenz), jo (H&R)		semantic shift (in protolg?)	East Tukanoan	from banana; cf. Hup, Bora	Loan into Kakua ho				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	no	plant
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.	ki	kíí (stenz)		inheritance	East Tukanoan, Branch II						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	dʉkʉ, kʰɨ	dʉkʉ, kʰɨ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan		Compare Arawak forms w/ ka				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	no	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	no	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa				missing							missing		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	no	trunks contain sago-like starch
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	wihminairo (Waltz)	wihminaiɾo (Waltz), bɨ̃'tẽ-iro (H&R)		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus	bi'ʔi	bi'ʔi		inheritance	East Tukanoan					Broader (rat and mouse)	uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)				missing							missing		See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no	prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis	di'a tĩ'bĩ	di'a tĩ'bĩ		inheritance	East Tukanoan		Means both giant otter and small otter across various ET languages; not clear which meaning may have been original				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes	wɨ'pɨ po'ko	wɨ'pɨ po'ko		doubtful loan into protolg - WW? onomatopoeic?	East Tukanoan	%pupu					uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread	no
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)	sã'bã	sã'bã		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.	~bako	mãkõ		unique							uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana	mujiõ (Waltz)	muhiõ (Waltz)		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan		Same morpheme found in 'sun/moon'; probable cognate in Orejon				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	no	palm
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica	wa'tʃo	wa'tʃo		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	1	0	0	0	1	Widespread	no
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no	palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes	~ɨde	~ɨde	pupunha palm	inheritence							missing		Chacon 2014: Appendix A	2	1	0	0	0		no
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus	~sare	~sare		inheritance	East Tukanoan	possibly from TG nana?					uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae	bʉ'ʉ	bʉʔʉ, bɨ'ʔɨ (H&R)		inheritance	East Tukanoan, Branch II						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no [not in this region]
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation	no	compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	ñapi (Waltz)	ja'pĩ, japi (Waltz)		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no	tree
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones	pichõno soro (Waltz)	piʧõno soɾo (Waltz)		unique							uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		yes
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua	~yʉbʉ	~jʉbʉ		missing							missing		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia	no	may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata	agã dapu; wahpo (black lizard) (all Waltz)	agã dapu; wahpo (all Waltz)		doubtful loan		North Arawak	See e.g. Tariana dúpu. Also wahpo (black lizard)				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda	~su'i	~suʔi		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		~phido	ã'gã (H&R), ~pʰido		inheritance			Means 'boa, anaconda' in most other ET languages. Also ã'gã (H&R)				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox	~phido	soʔ'kõ-dõ ã'gã (H&R), ~pʰido		semantic shift			Means 'boa, anaconda' in most other ET languages. Also soʔ'kõ-dõ ã'gã (H&R)				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread South America	yes
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.	~boko (generic)	mõkõ (generic)		unique							uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae	wʉpʉ	bɨ́'pɨ́ (H&R), w~vʉʰpʉ (ʉ hi tone) (stenz)		inheritance	East Tukanoan		Also bɨ́'pɨ́ (H&R)				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.	wa'ha-ka	wa'ha-ka		missing	East Tukanoan		Also means 'bottle-gourd' in other ET languages				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae	~wiso	~wiso		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.	jãʔ'bũ	jãʔ'bũ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan		Likely loan into Yukpa				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	wachʉ	waʰʧʉ (ʉ hi tone) (stenz), wa'tʃɨ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera	butua	butua, bu'tua-iro		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea				missing							missing		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	ta'ʔaro bɨ'kɨ	ta'ʔaro bɨ'kɨ		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum	~bʉ'do	~bʉʔdo, bɨ̃ʔ'dõ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	1	0	0	0	1		no	plant
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	ku	ku-ri		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Widespread	no
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.	dasa	da'sa		doubtful loan into protolanguage	Proto-Tukanoan	North Arawak	See e.g. Mandawaka da:se, Baniwa dzatte				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		yʉkʉ	jʉkʉ, ju'kɨ-kɨ		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella	kũɨ	kũɨ		unique		shared Piratapuyo	Cognate Piratapuyo				uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	no	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae	ju'ka	ju'ka		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread South America	no
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita				missing							missing		See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons				missing							missing		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus	wa'ʔu	wa'ʔu		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari	je'se	je'se		inheritance	East Tukanoan						uncoded		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae	seneno (black-blue); corẽ (all Waltz)	seneno; koɾẽ (all Waltz)		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan		Also seneno (black-blue woodpecker)				uncoded		See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no

Showing 1 to 138 of 138 entries

Cultural Vocabulary (106)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	bʉe	bʉe		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex		hunting, warfare	See Language page
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	~khoba	~kʰoba		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex		especially for clearing fields	See Language page
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool				missing								can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material				missing									See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	phʉʔʉ́			inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	generic: phʉ'ʉ	generic: pʰʉʔʉ		inheritance									See Language page
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material				missing									See Language page
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material				missing									See Language page
bed	cama	cama	culture-material	carĩni casario; coãri casario (all Waltz)	kaɾĩni kasaɾio; koãɾi kasaɾio (all Waltz)		unknown		calque?				Compound	koãri probably rel to 'sleep'; kasario=bag		See Language page
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	dujiro	dujiro		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan, East branch (at least)					Simplex			See Language page
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool	puka	puka		doubtful loan	Proto-East Tukanoan	cf. Quechua pukuna; Andoke uipúkə̃			Appears to have dropped final syllable. May derive from Iriartella palm, also possibly related to 'blow'	Simplex		currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation	garafaka	garafaka		loan		Portuguese				Simplex	contains classifier?		See Language page
bottom grinding stone			manufacture				missing								if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	bʉe~dete	bʉe~dete		inheritance					from bʉe 'shoot'?	Compound		arco	See Language page
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material	kasario	kasario		unknown						Simplex			See Language page
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	bʉso	bʉso		unique						Simplex			See Language page
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	pisana	pisana		loan - WW		%pisana	WW	%pisana	probably originally from Port bicho 'small animal'; compare E. Tukano, (e.g. Desano pisana); Arawak (e.g. Tariana pisána); Carib (Makushi pisana; Pemon pitʃana); Kakua pitʃina. But note Quechua 'broom' pitʃana	Simplex			See Language page
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	karaka	karaka		loan - WW		%karaka	WW	%karaka	Probably Arawak origin (see Nordenskiold 1922). Tukanoan, e.g. Wanano karaka; Arawak, e.g. Baniwa kaláka; Yanomamo, Nadeb; Macaguan takra, Sikuani wakara	Simplex			See Language page
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	pùhtoro	pùhtoro		inheritance		shared Piratapuyo			Compare Carib: Pemon eepuuruu; Makushi póotɨ-rɨ				See Language page
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	suhtiro (Waltz)	suhtiɾo (Waltz)		inheritance									See Language page
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool	yukùkù si	yukùkù si		unknown									See Language page
coca			narcotics	putu pũ			Doubtful loan		Local	WW	%patu	Nheengatu ipadu; Arawak (e.g. Tariana hipatú); Carijona ihatu; E. Tukano (e.g. Bará 'pátu); Daw				See Language page
cook food			food	doʔá			inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology	boraró	boraró		unknown					Also found Tukano	Other complex	ro is sing suffix	malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page
dance (generic)			culture-mythology	basa			inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan				dahpo tira Waltz)	Compound		lit. tener pie (to have/of feet)	See Language page
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool	waka	waka		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex		hunting and warfare	See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology	kohamaku	kohamaku		calque, direction unknown		North Arawak? 'Bone-Son'			Compare Arawak, 'bone' in culture figure name. Also: cohamaco (feminine)	Compound	bone-son'	In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool				Missing									See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	kahara	kahara		unknown					Also: purîna				See Language page
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology	tohati	tohati		loan - WW	Eastern branch, Proto-East Tukanoan	%toto (onomatopoeic?)			But compare Urarina, tǫǫto				See Language page
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture				missing								Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool	winino	winino		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan				Compare similar terms in Carib			esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology	tùhriro	tùhriro		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan				Cognate? in Koreguaje, tuhivʉ				See Language page
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other	pari kùnu	pari kùnu		loan		TG pari				Compound		may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture	phayuru	phajuru		loan (into protolanguage?) - WW		%pajaru						prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other				missing									See Language page
firewood	leña	lenha	other	picha (Waltz)	piʧa (Waltz)		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food	generic fish v: jo'ga	generic fish v: joʔga		unknown									See Language page
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	generic fish v:jo'ga	generic fish v:joʔga	fish (generic)	unknown						Simplex			See Language page
fish poison	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	subsistence tool				Missing									See Language page
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool	jo’gárida	jo’gárida		unique						Derived	jo’gá+ri-da; fish+NOM-CLS:ropelike		See Language page
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool	káyé	kájé		unknown						Simplex			See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food	~dahó	nahó		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan					Simplex		usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food	po'ka	poʔka		inheritance/sem shift	Proto-East Tukanoan	from 'powder'				Simplex		agriculture	See Language page
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology	teneniaka, ~da'bo, karisu	teneniaka, ~daʔbo, karisu		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan							multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food	waʔí		fish, animal	missing	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex		Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page
genipap			culture-mythology				Missing									See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	~wati	~wati		inheritance									See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	yurumaoka, wa'ha-ka ('gourd', H&R)	jurumaoka, wa'ha-ka ('gourd', H&R)		unknown; inheritance									See Language page
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool	sohcõno	sohkõno		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan							esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology	masa kopa	masa kopa		Calque					common among Vaupes languages, different forms in ET	Compound	masa=people; kopa=hole		See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool	kasa-rio	kasa-rio		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan, Eastern branch				Similar form in Tukano; see also Kakua kâyaʔ				See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool	tju dihoria	tju dihoria		unknown						Compound		agriculture?	See Language page
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	wamoa	wamoa		unique									See Language page
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	pʉno (Waltz)	pʉno (Waltz)		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	ʦapea	ʦapea		loan		Port chapeu			Possibly via Arawak; Baniwa tsapéwa; Pemon sapewa	Simplex			See Language page
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology				inheritance								Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics				missing									See Language page
honey	miel	mel	food	~bi	mĩ		inheritance					May be related to ET mumia	Simplex		only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page
house			other	wʉ'ʉ	wʉʔ `ʉ (stenz)		inheritance		E-W Tuk							See Language page
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	bʉe (hunt with arrows)	bʉe (hunt with arrows)	hunt with arrows	inheritance						Simplex			See Language page
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	sίórί pʰί (stenz)	sίórί pʰί (stenz)		unique						Derived	sió+rí-~phí; be.sharp+NOM-CLS:bladelike		See Language page
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress	wasuru	wasuru		missing									See Language page
machete	machete	facão	culture-material	yoari pjĩ (Waltz)	joaɾi pjĩ (Waltz)		inheritance		shared Macuna				Derived	joa+ri-~phi; be.long+NOM-CLS:bladelike		See Language page
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool	docaadʉ	dokaadʉ		inheritance?		cf. Arawak, other toka terms							See Language page
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	sajari wajwa	sahari wahwa		inheritance									See Language page
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology	pakʉ	pakʉ											See Language page
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology	karisu	karisu		unknown					Also in Tukano and in regional Port; not clear whether a loan or native Tukanoan.	Simplex			See Language page
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	papera pû	papera pû		loan		Span/Port 'papel'	WW	%papera	Spanish/Portuguese > Nheengatu > others? Ninam liplo (metathesis); Arawak (e.g. Yucuna papera); Macaguan papéna; Tukanoan (Cubeo papela, Wanano papera pû, Tukano papéra); Nheengatu papera; Yanomam, papʰeo	Simplex			See Language page
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool	docaadʉ	dokaadʉ		missing									See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other				Missing									See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other				missing									See Language page
plate	plato	prato	culture-material	waparo	waparo		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan, Eastern branch 2								See Language page
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation	surara	surara		loan			WW			Simplex			See Language page
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	biato	biato		loan?		Spanish/Portuguese				Simplex			See Language page
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology	jã'sã-kã	jã'sã-kã		inheritance									See Language page
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool	yucùcù se	yucùcù se		unknown						Compound			See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	~da'bo	nãʔmṍ		unique									See Language page
salt	sal	sal	food	moa	moa		inheritance/sem shift?					original meaning 'salt plant'	Simplex			See Language page
school	escuela	escola	acculturation	buheri wùhu	buheri wùhu		Calque		Local			study house/place' all over Vaupes.	Compound	buheri=to study/learn		See Language page
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology	yai	jai	shaman	semantic shift		from 'jaguar'			Also means 'jaguar' b/c of belief that shamans turn into jaguars	Simplex	ro Sing suffix	In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress	dahpo suhtiro	dahpo suhtiro		unique						Compound	foot clothes'		See Language page
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material	saya si	saya si		loan		Port/Span saia	WW	%saja	Port > Nheengatu > others? Arawak (e.g. Baniwa tsʰaaja); Makushi u-saja-ri; Wanano saya si; Nheengatu saja; Ninam saja				See Language page
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation	surara	surara		loan - WW		%surara	WW	%surara	Port via Nheengatu; also in Arawak, Carib, East Tukanoan, Yanomamo. Nheengatu surara; Makushi surara; Hup sudadu; East Tukanoan (e.g. Cubeo ʈʃulala); Ninam sotatu	Simplex			See Language page
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology	basaa	basaa	song, dance	inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	jõ'sã-ri paro	jõ'sã-ri paro		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan				Or maybe family-internal loan	Derived	~josa-dʉ; force.into-CLS:cylindrical.straight		See Language page
spearthrower			subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food	wate	wate		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material				missing									See Language page
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	~khadʉ	~khadʉ		unknown									See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food	ñumucu	ñumuku		inheritance	Proto-East Tukanoan				Doubtful: found in 3 intermarrying ET languages and Tariana; loan Tuk > Tariana?			agriculture	See Language page
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material	mujiõ (Waltz)	muhiõ (Waltz)		inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food	~wiʔo	~wiʔo		unknown						Simplex		word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page
tobacco (native)			narcotics	bɨ̃ʔ'dõ			inheritance	Proto-Tukanoan					Simplex			See Language page
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture				missing								use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool	ñama	ñama		Calque, direction unknown		North Arawak			deer=tripod occurs in all regional ET and where attested in Arawak lgs	Simplex		agriculture	See Language page
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool	~phuri (generic poison) (stenzel)	pʰũɾĩ (generic poison)	poison, venom (e.g. snake)	unknown						Simplex		hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page
wax	cera	cera	other	mi suhti	mi suhti	bee wax	unique						Compound	honey clothes/covering		See Language page
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	wʉhʉ batiro, misi batiro, sùhoca	wʉhʉ batiro, misi batiro, sùhoka		unknown						Simplex		agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology				missing								a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page

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Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 147
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no		Stenzel 2004
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 273
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 240
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 237
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	no		Stenzel 2007
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Stenzel 2004
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes	aspect, modal, negation, clausal	Stenzel 2007:486
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 96
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 96
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 96
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	no info		Stenzel 2007
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	no info		Stenzel 2007
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	yes		Stenzel 2007:242
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no		Stenzel 2007
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	no		Stenzel 2004
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	0		Stenzel 2004, p. 166
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 171
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 171
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 171
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 171
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 171
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 171
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 171
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 171
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	yes		Stenzel 2007:10
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no		Stenzel 2007
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no	re, the object marker, codes definiteness as one of its semantic components	Stenzel 2004, p. 223
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no		Stenzel 2004
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 161
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Stenzel 2007
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	0		Stenzel 2004, p. 184
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 184
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes	gender only for human	Stenzel 2004, p. 122
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	1	inanimate, masc., femine	Stenzel 2004, p. 126
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 122
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 128
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 139
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 127
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 161
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		yes	only occurs with certain lower-level animates	Stenzel 2004, p. 122
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 122
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 123
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 186
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	yes		Stenzel 2007:130
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	yes	animate, non-human, collective nouns are marked by suffix -kiro and inanimate mass nouns are marked by a partitive suffix	Stenzel 2004, p. 128 & 139
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes	marked by suffixes	Stenzel 2004, p. 128
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 128
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 128
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 128
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no	countable inanimate nouns can be pluralized by a suffix	Stenzel 2004, p. 139
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	yes	3rd pronouns are derived from anaphoric particle root 'ti+' the noun class marker- in the 3P the animate plural class marker is used	Stenzel 2004, p. 161
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no	but comitative marker may have historically been an associative	Stenzel 2004
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 190
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 190
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 190
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 190
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	yes	five means 'one hand;	Stenzel 2004, p. 189
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 190
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 190
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no info		Stenzel 2004
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	no info		Stenzel 2004
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		yes		Stenzel 2007:142
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 161
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 161
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 161
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	no info		Stenzel 2004
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 105
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 202
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 154
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 104
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 104
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	yes		Stenzel 2004
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	no		Stenzel 2004, p, 172
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no	pronouns can be cliticized to possessed noun	Stenzel 2007:187
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 195
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 198
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes	when the genetive marker is used it is on the possessed thing	Stenzel 2004, p. 198
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no	the classifers used in the examples are the same classifiers used when the noun is not possessed	Stenzel 2004, p. 195
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 197
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 197
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 197
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 197
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 197
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 197
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	no info		Stenzel 2004
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Stenzel 2007 IJAL
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no	allophonic	Waltz p. 29
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	no		Waltz p. 34
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no	glottalization is a suprasegmental feature	Waltz p. 32/ Stenzel 63, 95
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Stenzel 2007:38
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	yes		Waltz p. 33
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Waltz p. 33
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	yes	H and HL	Stenzel 2004, p. 83
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no		Stenzel 2007
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 49
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 79
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		yes	examples exist of vowel harmony but participation seems random; marginal as a 'system'	Stenzel 2004, p. 66
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	yes	objects occasionally are not marked. Stenzel's hypothesis is that any nominal constituent in a preverbal position in a transitive clause is the object.	Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	no		Stenzel 2007
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 312
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 381
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 381
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 381
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 381
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no		Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 158
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 158
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	yes	clitic	Stenzel 2004, p. 315
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 315
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 315
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 315
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 265
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no info		Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	yes	verb sequence constructions, where last one takes inflection but they form separate phonological words (unlike SVCs/compounds)	sect. 11.6 (Neb Press)
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	yes		Stenzel 2007:320
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	yes	sequence can be indicated via compounded root 'finish, though this is not required	Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	no info		Stenzel 2007
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no		Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 263
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes	appear with nominalizer/classifier	Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no info	unclear; depends on whether one considers RCs headed by a classifier to be headless	Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no info		Stenzel 2007
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		no		Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	yes	nominalizer appears on RCs, may occur with or without another classifier	Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 217
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	no		Stenzel 2007
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	no		Stenzel 2007
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	no		Stenzel 2007
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Stenzel 2007
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no	objects not marked on the verb	Stenzel 2007
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no		Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 194
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	yes	gender is neutralized in the third person	Stenzel 2004, p. 213
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 226
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 226
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 226
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 239
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	no info	referential' -ta can have reflexive function?	Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	no		Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	no info		Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no info		Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	no		Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	yes	dependent verb root that compounds with the benefactive marker	Stenzel 2004, p. 239
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	no		Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 207
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 207
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 207
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	yes	construction with yoa codes causation	Stenzel 2007:375
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no info		Stenzel 2004, p. 207
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	no info		Stenzel 2004
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no info		Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	no	no tense	Stenzel 2007:255-263
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no		Stenzel 2007:255-263
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no		Stenzel 2007:255-263
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		no		Stenzel 2007:255-263
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 282
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 345
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 345
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 345
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	yes	heresay	Stenzel 2004, p. 345
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 345
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	yes	assertion/presupposition	Stenzel 2004, p. 345
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 345
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 345
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 345
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 345
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 378
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 389
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 389
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 389
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no		Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		yes	verb 'know' in compound can mean possibility, suggestion, or ability to do V.	Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no		Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no	evidentials can have epistemic interpretations	Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		yes	verb 'know' in compound can mean possibility, suggestion, or ability to do V.	Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no		Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no		Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 313
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	no	habitual meaning expressed via visual evidential, imperfective aspect + activity verb	Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 390
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 377
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no info		Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	yes	noun suffix -di'ta 'solitary', compound verb root -so'a 'do together'	Stenzel 2004
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		no		Stenzel 2004
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no	SOV preferred	Stenzel 2004
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no		Stenzel 2004
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 220
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 182
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 182
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Stenzel 2004
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Stenzel 2004
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 183
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no		Stenzel 2004, p. 183
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	no	no adj class, but property concepts do tend to precede nouns	Stenzel 2004
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	no		Stenzel 2004
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 183
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 184
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes		Stenzel 2004, p. 185
Word Order	Noun-Num		no		Stenzel 2004, p. 186
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	no		Stenzel 2004
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	yes	seems to be preferred	Stenzel 2004
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no		Stenzel 2004
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Stenzel 2004
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Stenzel 2004

Showing 1 to 226 of 226 entries

Ethnographic Information

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Current Population (speakers)	Former Population Estimate	Subsistence Preference	Density	Sedentism	Ecotome	Marriage Pattern	Notes	Source
1000	medium	AG	medium	sedentary	Riverine	Linguistic exogamy

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