Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Makushi

Family: Cariban
Region: South America
ISO 639-3: mbc
Location: 4.32°, -60.22°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information

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Data Sources: Abbott, Miriam. 1991. Macushi. Handbook of Amazonian Languages, D.C. Derbyshire & G.K. Pullum, eds. 3. 23-160. Abbott, Miriam, & Patrick Foster. 2007. Macushi. In Mary R. Key, Intercontinental Dictionary Series. Carson, Neusa Martins 1982. Phonology and morphosyntax of Makuxi (Carib). Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas. Meira, Sérgio. Wordlist.

Basic Vocabulary (192)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Loan Source	General Notes	Source
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar	ú-rɨ-nɨ-kóŋ	ú-rɨ-nɨ-kóŋ	unknown			See Language page
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	anna	anna	inheritance		no inclusive/exclusive distinction unless noted	See Language page
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	u-rɨ	u-rɨ	inheritance		For pronouns: include bound/cliticized pronominal forms where significantly different from the free forms	See Language page
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	á-mɨ-rɨ́-nɨ-kóŋ	á-mɨ-rɨ́-nɨ-kóŋ	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	á-mɨ-rɨ́	á-mɨ-rɨ́	inheritance			See Language page
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	ínka-mo-ró	ínka-mo-ró	inheritance			See Language page
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	mɨ́-kɨ-rɨ́	mɨ́-kɨ-rɨ́	inheritance			See Language page
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	yepoi; pairɨ (IDS)	yepoi; pairɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar	inɨʔrɨ (IDS)	inɨʔrɨ (IDS)	unknown			See Language page
all	todo	todos	other	tamɨʔnawɨrɨ (IDS)	tamɨʔnawɨrɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
and	y	e	grammar	moropai (IDS)	moropai (IDS)	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body	u-rupukon (IDS)	u-rupukon (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body	u-yewata (IDS)	u-yewata (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	runuʔpɨ (IDS)	runuʔpɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
at	en, a	em, a	location			missing			See Language page
back	espalda	costas	body	i-npo (IDS)	i-npo (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
bad	mal	mal	quality	imakuiʔpɨ (IDS)	imakuiʔpɨ (IDS)	unique			See Language page
bark	corteza	casca	environment	yéi-piipɨ	yéi-piipɨ	inheritance			See Language page
belly	barriga	barriga	body	roʔta (SM)	roʔta (SM)	inheritance			See Language page
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location	yepoi (IDS)	yepoi (IDS)	unique			See Language page
big	grande	grande	quality	kureʔne (IDS)	kureʔne (IDS)	unique			See Language page
bite	morder	morder	body	yeʔka (IDS)	yeʔka (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
black	negro	preto	colour	arikkɨtun (IDS)	arikkɨtun (IDS)	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
blood	sangre	sangue	body	mɨ́ŋ	mɨ́ŋ	inheritance			See Language page
blow	soplar	soprar	body	pumɨ (IDS)	pumɨ (IDS)	inheritance	cognate Pemon		See Language page
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body	a-awoi-saʔ (IDS)	a-awoi-saʔ (IDS)	unknown			See Language page
bone	hueso	osso	body	yeepɨ’	yeepɨ’	inheritance			See Language page
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	i-manatɨ (IDS)	i-manatɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	yetta-pusin (IDS)	yetta-pusin (IDS)	unknown			See Language page
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	transitive: poʔtɨ' intransitive: aramɨ (IDS)	transitive: poʔtɨ' intransitive: aramɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body	yapo (IDS)	yapo (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
child	niño, niña	criança	human	moré	moré	inheritance			See Language page
climb	subir	subir	motion	enuku (IDS)	enuku (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment			missing			See Language page
cold	frío	frio	quality	komiʔ (IDS)	komiʔ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
come	venir	vir	motion	iipɨ (IDS)	iipɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	rentɨ (SM)	rentɨ (SM)	inheritance	cognate Pemon		See Language page
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality	yairɨ (IDS)	yairɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
count	contar	contar	mental	kuʔneʔtɨ (IDS)	kuʔneʔtɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	ikarau (IDS)	ikarau (IDS)	inheritance	cognate Pemon		See Language page
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	yaʔtɨ (IDS)	yaʔtɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
day	día	dia	time	aʔka (SIL)	aʔka (SIL)	unknown	Arawak		See Language page
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	saʔmanta (IDS)	saʔmanta (IDS)	unique			See Language page
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	yaka (IDS)	yaka (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
dingo/wolf			fauna			missing			See Language page
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	koron; nora (IDS)	koron; nora (IDS)	unique; inheritance			See Language page
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	eʔmoronoʔpe (IDS)	eʔmoronoʔpe (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	enɨrɨ (IDS)	enɨrɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
dry	seco	seco	quality	awaʔpiʔta (IDS)	awaʔpiʔta (IDS)	unique			See Language page
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality	ikeʔ-mara (IDS)	ikeʔ-mara (IDS)	unique			See Language page
dust	polvo	poeira	environment	kutuppan (IDS)	kutuppan (IDS)	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
ear	oreja	orelha	body	u-pana (IDS)	u-pana (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	non	non	inheritance			See Language page
eat	comer	comer	body	entamoʔka (IDS)	entamoʔka (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	pomói	pomói	inheritance			See Language page
eye	ojo	olho	body	-énu	-énu	inheritance			See Language page
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body			missing			See Language page
fall	caer	cair	motion	enaʔpɨ (IDS)	enaʔpɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
far	lejos	longe	quality	aminke (IDS)	aminke (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	kaiwan (IDS)	kaiwan (IDS)	doubtful loan, direction unknown	Arawak- Wapishana: kʰiwinii		See Language page
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	paʔpá	paʔpá	doubtful loan	Portuguese		See Language page
fear	miedo	medo	mental	esiʔnɨpɨ (IDS)	esiʔnɨpɨ (IDS)	unique			See Language page
feather	pluma	pena	fauna			missing			See Language page
fingernail	uña	unha	body	u-yenya piʔpɨ (IDS)	u-yenya piʔpɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	apóó	apóó	inheritance			See Language page
fish	xx	xx	fauna	moróʔ	moróʔ	inheritance			See Language page
flow	fluir	fluir	motion			missing			See Language page
flower	flor	flor	environment	yariʔku (IDS)	yariʔku (IDS)	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
fly	volar	voar	motion	ereuwe (IDS)	ereuwe (IDS)	inheritance	cognate Pemon; compare Tupi-Guarani- Nheengatu:wewé; Cocama: uwe		See Language page
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment			missing			See Language page
foot	pie	pé	body	púúpú	púúpú	unique			See Language page
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	yekkari (IDS)	yekkari (IDS)	semantic shift	flower		See Language page
good	bueno	bom	quality	morɨ (IDS)	morɨ (IDS)	inheritance	shared Pemon		See Language page
green	verde	verde	quality	rora (IDS)	rora (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
grow	crecer	crescer	state	akɨpɨ; arenta (IDS)	akɨpɨ; arenta (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	siipo	siipo	inheritance			See Language page
hand	mano	mão	body	míá	míá	inheritance	at least N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	i-puʔpai (IDS)	i-puʔpai (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	eta (IDS)	eta (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
heart	corazón	coração	body	u-yewan (IDS)	u-yewan (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	amaiʔne (IDS)	amaiʔne (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	esonomɨ (IDS)	esonomɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	paʔtɨ (IDS)	paʔtɨ (IDS)	unique			See Language page
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	apiʔsɨ (SM)	apiʔsɨ (SM)	inheritance			See Language page
hot	caliente	quente	quality	aʔneʔ (IDS)	aʔneʔ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
how?	como	como	grammar	oʔnon yeʔka (IDS)	oʔnon yeʔka (IDS)	unique			See Language page
if	si	se	grammar	ya (IDS)	ya (IDS)	missing			See Language page
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	ya (IDS)	ya (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	i-siwisikɨ (IDS)	i-siwisikɨ (IDS)	unique			See Language page
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body	kaʔnare (IDS)	kaʔnare (IDS)	unique			See Language page
kill	matar	matar	impact	wɨʔ (IDS)	wɨʔ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	epuʔtɨ (IDS)	epuʔtɨ (IDS)	inheritance	cognate Pemon		See Language page
lake	lago	lago	environment	ikuʔpɨ (IDS)	ikuʔpɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
laugh	reír	rir	mental	sii (IDS)	sii (IDS)	unique			See Language page
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	yare (IDS)	yare (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	kai-winɨkɨi (IDS)	kai-winɨkɨi (IDS)	unknown			See Language page
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	i-peʔ (IDS)	i-peʔ (IDS)	unknown			See Language page
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	aittun (IDS)	aittun (IDS)	unknown			See Language page
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	waraʔnapi esensiʔma (IDS)	waraʔnapi esensiʔma (IDS)	semantic shift	thunder		See Language page
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body	koʔmamɨ (IDS)	koʔmamɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
liver	hígado	figado	body	yere (IDS)	yere (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	kusan (IDS)	kusan (IDS)	unique			See Language page
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	ayan (SM)	ayan (SM)	inheritance		order Phtiraptera	See Language page
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	u-yarakku (IDS)	u-yarakku (IDS)	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
man/male	hombre	homem	human	warayoʔ (SIL)	warayoʔ (SIL)	inheritance			See Language page
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	saráru	saráru	unique			See Language page
moon	luna	lua	environment	kapói	kapói	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	maʔmá	maʔmá	loan	Spanish		See Language page
mountain/hill	montaña, colina, loma, cerro	morro, serra	environment	wɨʔ (SIL)	wɨʔ (SIL)	inheritance			See Language page
mouth	boca	boca	body	mutá	mutá	inheritance			See Language page
name	nombre	nome	human	yeseʔ (IDS)	yeseʔ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body	u-mɨ yeʔpɨ (IDS)	u-mɨ yeʔpɨ (IDS)	unique			See Language page
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	aminke pra (IDS)	aminke pra (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	uʔ-mɨ (IDS)	uʔ-mɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
new	nuevo	novo	quality	amenan (IDS)	amenan (IDS)	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
night	noche	noite	time	ewaron (SIL)	ewaron (SIL)	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
no/not	no	não	grammar	kaane (IDS)	kaane (IDS)	unique			See Language page
nose	nariz	nariz	body	u-yeuna (IDS)	u-yeuna (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
old	viejo	velho	quality	penaroʔ (IDS)	penaroʔ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
one	uno	um	number	tiwíŋ	tiwíŋ	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	atarakamɨ-ka (IDS)	atarakamɨ-ka (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
other	otro	outro	grammar	inɨno (SM)	inɨno (SM)	inheritance			See Language page
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body	paran (IDS)	paran (IDS)	inheritance	cognate Pemon		See Language page
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	pemóŋkóŋ	pemóŋkóŋ	inheritance	cognate Pemon		See Language page
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	iʔpopɨtɨ (SM)	iʔpopɨtɨ (SM)	unique			See Language page
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	konoʔ (IDS)	konoʔ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
red	rojo	vermelho	colour	suyú	suyú	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body	mai-winɨkɨi (IDS)	mai-winɨkɨi (IDS)	unique			See Language page
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	eréétɨ	eréétɨ	unknown			See Language page
root	raíz	raiz	flora	kara (IDS)	kara (IDS)	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	aa-kata-saʔ (IDS)	aa-kata-saʔ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
sand	arena	areia	environment	kásapán	kásapán	unknown			See Language page
say	decir	dizer	mental			missing			See Language page
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact	kaʔnama (SM)	kaʔnama (SM)	unknown			See Language page
see	ver	ver	mental	eraʔma (IDS)	eraʔma (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	ikeʔ (IDS)	ikeʔ (IDS)	unknown			See Language page
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	poka (SM)	poka (SM)	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
short	corto	curto	quality	piaʔmɨtɨ (IDS)	piaʔmɨtɨ (IDS)	unique			See Language page
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	u-mota (IDS)	u-mota (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental			missing			See Language page
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	ereuta (IDS)	ereuta (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
skin	piel	pele	body	piipɨ	piipɨ	inheritance			See Language page
sky	cielo	céu	environment	kaʔ (IDS)	kaʔ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	wetun (IDS)	wetun (IDS)	unknown			See Language page
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	siʔmɨrikkɨ (IDS)	siʔmɨrikkɨ (IDS)	inheritance	shared Pemon		See Language page
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	wɨreʔsin (SIL)	wɨreʔsin (SIL)	inheritance			See Language page
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	puʔnɨkɨ (IDS)	puʔnɨkɨ (IDS)	inheritance		primarily transitive	See Language page
spit	escupir	cuspir	body	u-yetaku yenumɨ-u-ya (IDS)	u-yetaku yenumɨ-u-ya (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	yaʔmorikka (IDS)	yaʔmorikka (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	suʔka (IDS)	suʔka (IDS)	inheritance	at least N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact	yasoʔka (IDS)	yasoʔka (IDS)	unknown			See Language page
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	satti pe (IDS)	satti pe (IDS)	unique			See Language page
star	estrella	estrela	environment	sírikɨ́	sírikɨ́	inheritance	likely loan into Yanomami		See Language page
steal	robar	roubar	other	yamaʔronpa (IDS)	yamaʔronpa (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	meʔsipu (IDS)	meʔsipu (IDS)	unique			See Language page
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	tɨʔ (SIL)	tɨʔ (SIL)	inheritance			See Language page
suck	chupar	chupar	body	yuʔna (IDS)	yuʔna (IDS)	unknown			See Language page
sun	sol	sol	time	wéi	wéi	inheritance			See Language page
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body			missing			See Language page
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	awɨi (SM)	awɨi (SM)	inheritance			See Language page
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	u-pɨnɨnu (IDS)	u-pɨnɨnu (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	i-taukɨ (IDS)	i-taukɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar			missing			See Language page
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	ereʔsin (IDS)	ereʔsin (IDS)	unique			See Language page
thin	delgado	fino	quality	siiriru (IDS)	siiriru (IDS)	unique			See Language page
think	pensar	pensar	mental	esenumenka (IDS)	esenumenka (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
this	este/esta	este	grammar			missing			See Language page
three	tres	tres	number	séúru-né	séúru-né	inheritance			See Language page
throat	garganta	garganta	body	uʔmɨ yetta (IDS)	uʔmɨ yetta (IDS)	unique			See Language page
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	yenumɨ (IDS)	yenumɨ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	waraʔnapiya taa (IDS)	waraʔnapiya taa (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	yewaʔtɨ (IDS)	yewaʔtɨ (IDS)	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	u-nu (IDS)	u-nu (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
tooth	diente	dente	body	-yé	-jé	inheritance			See Language page
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other	turn over: eraʔtɨ; turn around: ennaʔpo (IDS)	turn over: eraʔtɨ; turn around: ennaʔpo (IDS)	inheritance		may be transitive or intransitive	See Language page
two	dos	dois	number	sáákɨ-né	sáákɨ-né	inheritance			See Language page
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	yarakka (IDS)	yarakka (IDS)	inheritance?			See Language page
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	aasáá	aasáá	unknown			See Language page
water	agua	agua	environment	tuna	tuna	inheritance			See Language page
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	aman-saʔ (IDS)	aman-saʔ (IDS)	unique			See Language page
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	ɨʔ (IDS)	ɨʔ (IDS)	unique			See Language page
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	ɨʔ pensa (IDS)	ɨʔ pensa (IDS)	unique			See Language page
where?	donde	onde	grammar	oʔnon pata (IDS)	oʔnon pata (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
white	blanco	branco	colour	áímutun	áímutun	inheritance			See Language page
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	anɨʔ (IDS)	anɨʔ (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	noopi	noopi	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
wind	viento	vento	environment	aʔsitun (IDS)	aʔsitun (IDS)	inheritance	N Amaz subgroup		See Language page
wing	ala	asa	body	yapɨri (IDS)	yapɨri (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	wɨriʔ (SIL)	wɨriʔ (SIL)	inheritance			See Language page
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	esenyakaʔma (IDS)	esenyakaʔma (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body	entapiʔma (IDS)	entapiʔma (IDS)	inheritance			See Language page
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	aʔmutun (IDS)	aʔmutun (IDS)	unique			See Language page


1pl.excl
1pl.incl
1sg
2pl
2sg
3pl
3sg
above
again
all
and
ankle
armpit
ash
at
back
bad
bark
belly
below
big
bite
black
blood
blow
boil/pimple
bone
breast
breathe
burn
chew
child
climb
cloud
cold
come
cook
correct/true
count
cry
cut/hack
day
die/be dead
dig
dingo/wolf
dirty
dream
drink
dry
dull/blunt
dust
ear
earth/soil
eat
egg
eye
faeces
fall
far
fat/grease
father
fear
feather
fingernail
fire
fish
flow
flower
fly
fog
foot
fruit
good
green
grow
hair (of head)
hand
head
hear
heart
heavy
hide
hit
hold
hot
how?
if
in/inside
intestines
itch
kill
know/be knowledgeable
lake
laugh
leaf
left/left hand
leg/foot
lie down
lightning
live/be alive
liver
long
louse
lung
man/male
meat/flesh
moon
mother
mountain/hill
mouth
name
nape
near/close
neck
new
night
no/not
nose
old
one
open/uncover
other
pain/painful/sick
person/human being
pound/beat
rain
red
right/right hand
road/path
root
rotten
sand
say
scratch
see
sharp
shoot
short
shoulder
shy/ashamed
sit
skin
sky
sleep
small
smoke
sniff/smell
spit
split
squeeze
stab/pierce
stand
star
steal
stick/wood
stone
suck
sun
sweat
swell
swim
tail
that
thick
thin
think
this
three
throat
throw
thunder
tie up/fasten
tongue
tooth
turn
two
vomit
walk
water
wet
what?
when?
where?
white
who?
wife
wind
wing
woman/female
work
yawn
yellow

Showing 1 to 192 of 192 entries

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (138)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Source	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Food Source	Medicinal	Psychotropic	Traded	Distribution	Dangerous	General Notes
achiote, anatto	achiote	urucum	flora-fauna	Bixa orellana				missing							See Language page	1	0	0	0	1	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	shrub
agouti (black agouti, black-rumped agouti)	Guatusa Negra, Añuje, Agutí (black-rumped), picure, jochi colorado	cutia	flora-fauna	Dasyprocta spp.	akuri (SM)	akuri (SM)		loan into protolg, direction unknown		Tupi-Guarani	Mello (2000) reconstructs for Proto-TG. Occurs widely in Carib; but loan into (?) Piaroa /æk'uri/; Nheengatu /akuti/; Achuar agutí	WW	%akuti		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
alligator, black caiman	babilla; cachirre	jacaré	flora-fauna	Melanosuchus niger, Caiman schlerops; Paleosuchus sp.	akaré	akaré		loan (into protolg?)	N Amazonian subgroup? (shared Akawaio, Pemon, Makushi, maybe Waimiri-Atroari)	Tupi-Guarani	*yakaré reconstructed for Proto-Tupi-Guarani (Schleicher 1998)	WW	%jakare		See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Throughout Amazonia	no?	Port term reportedly borrowed from Tupi
Amazon dolphin	bufeo, delfín, tonina (del Orinoco)	boto cor-de-rosa	flora-fauna	Inia geoffrensis				missing							See Language page	1	0	0	0	0	Downstream of major rapids and waterfalls	no
Amazon tree-grape	uva de monte, uvilla (Peru), puruma, caime, caimarona (and variants; Col.)	cucura	flora-fauna	Pourouma cecropiifolia				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	grows wild in Western Amazon basin; cultivated in Colombia since pre-Colombian times	no	a tree; not a true grape
anaconda	anaconda, boa, boa acuática grande	sucuri	flora-fauna	genus Eunectes	wɨi (SM)	wɨi (SM)		inheritance	Northern Carib? (attested Mapoyo, Makushi, Eñepa)						See Language page	2	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	yes
angleworm	lombriz	minhoca	flora-fauna	order Opisthopora	moʔ (generic worm)	moʔ (generic worm)	worm (generic)	inheritance	Northern Carib? (attested Pemongan group, Carijona)						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae	ayúú (generic ant)	ayúú (generic ant)		unknown							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0
anteater	oso hormiguero; tapia pelejo or pelejo chico for Cyclopes didactylus	tamanduá	flora-fauna	Myrmecophaga tridactyla (giant anteater); Cyclopes didactylus (silky anteater)				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonian lowlands	no
armadillo	armadillo, carachupa (Peru), yangunturi (Peru for Giant armadillo)	tatu	flora-fauna	family Dasypodidae; e.g. Priodontes maximus (Giant armadillo), Dasypus novemcinctus, Dasypus kappleri	muʔru (SM)	muʔru (SM)		inheritance	N Amazonian subgroup (Akawaio, Pemon, Makushi, Eñepa)						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread in Amazonia	no
arrow cane, wildcane	caña flecha, caña brava, caña isana	cana para flechas, frecheira, Cana-do-rio	flora-fauna	Gynerium sagittatum				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	tropical regions, especially river banks	no	plant
avocado	palta, aguacate	abacate	flora-fauna	Persea americana				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	tree
açai palm	huasí (Peru), asahi, manaca (Ven), asaí, palmiche (Colombia)	açaí	flora-fauna	Euterpe sp.				missing							See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	floodplains, swamp; esp. northern Amazonia	no
banana, plantain	banano, banana, cambur, bellaco, variedad de plátano	banana	flora-fauna	Musa sp.	parurú	parurú		inheritance?		Unknown	Wanderwort: likely Sp/Pt origin (platano); paru and similar variants found in Tanimuca, Yucuna, Makushi, Carijona (in other Carib lgs as 'bastard plantain); other variants of platano also widespread. Also ha’ru (H&R)				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	Names for banana/plantain may be derived from bastard plantain by semantic shift.
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp.				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
beans	frijoles, frejol, caraotas (negras, rojas, blancas)	feijão	flora-fauna	Phaseolus spp.				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		toron (SM)	toron (SM)		inheritance	Northern Carib?						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
bitterwood	tortuga caspi, pretina (Peru for tree and tumpline); carahuasca (Peru)	envira	flora-fauna	Duguetia sp. OR Fusaea longifolia OR Guatteria chrysopetala				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forests, native to Brazil	no	tree
black palm	bacaba, mapora, pusui, patabá	bacaba	flora-fauna	Oenocarpus bacaba				missing							See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Mature forests of Rio Negro and Upper Amazon	no	may be confused in some entries with O. bataua
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	ainumɨ (generic fly), turɨ' (horsefly) (SM)	ainumɨ, turɨʔ (SM)	generic fly	unique			Also turɨʔ 'horsefly'				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
boa	boa; mantona (red-tailed boa); boa de altura	jiboia	flora-fauna	family Boidae, subf. Boinae	aman (SM)	aman (SM)		inheritance	Unknown (Akawaio, Mapoyo, Pemon)		Possible loan into Quichua: amaru				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
bottle-gourd (vine) or calabash (tree)	calabazo, calabaza; auyama (Dominican Republic and Venezuela), ayote (parts of Central America), zapallo (parts of South America), tutumo/totumo/totuma (Cresc tree), huingo (Peru for Crescentia cujete), tapara	cabaça	flora-fauna	Crescentia cujete (round variety - tree); (Cucurbita) Lagenaria siceraria (bottle variety - vine)	pisa (SM)	pisa (SM)		unique							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	indigenous gardens	no	plant; tree
brazil nut	castaña	castanha do para (B. excelsa); castanha de cutia (C. edulis)	flora-fauna	Bertholletia excelsa [cf. Couepia edulis 'castanha do cutia']				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	1) Couepia: restricted area within Brazil, Rio Purus basin and middle Solimões. 2) Bertholletia: elev: consistently about 200m; mature forests. Widely distributed from Peru, E. Colombia, Brazil to Nicaragua.	no	tree
brown woolly monkey	Mono Lanudo Común, Choro, Churucu, mono choro (Peru), mono lanudo cafe, barrigudo de Humboldt	macaco barrigudo	flora-fauna	Lagothrix lagothricha	iwáriká	iwáriká	generic monkey	missing	Pemongan group (Makushi, Pemon, Akawaio)						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
bullet ant, lesser giant hunter ant	conga, hormiga yanabe (Colombia), isula (Peru), Hormiga Veinticuatro	tocandira	flora-fauna	Paraponera clavata				missing							See Language page	2	0	0	0	0		yes
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera	péppé	péppé		inheritance	Unknown (attested Waimiri-Atroari, Makushi)						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
capybara	Capibara, Carpincho, Ronsoco	capivara	flora-fauna	Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris	pɨrawi (SM)	pɨrawi (SM)		inheritance	Northern Carib?						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cará tuber, purple or white	camote, sachapapa	cará roxo, branco	flora-fauna	Dioscorea sp.				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation; forest clearings	no	plant
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium occidentale / giganteum	yoroiʔ (SM)	yoroiʔ (SM)		inheritance - WW	Northern Carib?	%eroi				Broader (wild and domesticate)	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens	no	tree; most sources will not distinguish between occidentale and other varieties
cashew	anarcado, castaña de cajú, nuez de la India, marañon, cajú, merey (Venezuela)	caju	flora-fauna	Anacardium giganteum	yoroiʔ	yoroiʔ		inheritance	Northern Carib?						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Brazil, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, Guyana	no
centipede	ciempiés	centopéia	flora-fauna	class Chilopoda				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cicada	cigarra, chicharra	cigarra	flora-fauna	super fam. Cicadoidea				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cipó vine	tamishi, bejuco, yare	cipó	flora-fauna	Heteropsis spp.				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forest, floodplain	no	vine
coca	coca	coca	flora-fauna	Erythroxylum coca				missing							See Language page	1	0	0	1	1	secondary scrub vegetation. lower alt. of eastern Andes	no	plant
cockroach	cucaracha	barata-do-mato	flora-fauna	order Blattaria	masarua (Cunha04)	masarua (Cunha04)		inheritance		possible link? Carib ()masarawa, TG taraBe					See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
collared peccary	sajino, pecarí de collar, jabalf, Javelina, Saíno, Pecarí de Collar	caititu, caetitu	flora-fauna	Pecari tajacu, Tayassu tajacu	paraka (SM)	paraka (SM)		inheritance	Northern Carib?						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cotamundi, coatimundi	Coatí, Tejón, Achuni, zorro guache	quati	flora-fauna	genus Nasua				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
cotton	algodón	algodão	flora-fauna	Gossypium (barbadense: long fibers; hirsutum: short fibers)	kotoʔkaʔ (SM)	kotoʔkaʔ (SM)		inheritance	N Amazonian group (attested Pemon, Akawaio, Makushi, prob. Eñepa)						See Language page	0	0	0	0	1	secondary scrub vegetation	no	plant; some sources may confound with kapok Ceiba pentandra (esp. if a single gloss for 'cotton' is given')
crab	cangrejo	caranguejo	flora-fauna	infraorder Brachyura				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cricket	saltón, grillo	grilo	flora-fauna	family Gryllidae	kariʔsa (SM)	kariʔsa (SM)		inheritance	Pemongan group (attested Akawaio, Pemon, Makushi, Eñepa)						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
cunuri (tree)	cunuri	cunuri	flora-fauna	Cunurea spruceana				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Amazonia	no
curassow	mitu, montete (Peru), paujil/panjuil (Peru), paujil de Salvin (Peru for Mitu salvini)	mutum	flora-fauna	Crax sp., Nothocrax sp.	akami (SM)	akami (SM)		inheritance	Guyana and N Amazonian branches?						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Amazonia	no
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna	family Cervidae, esp. Odocoileus virginianus	wáíkín	wáíkín		inheritance	Pemongan (attested Makushi, Eñepa, Pemon)						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna		wáíkín	wáíkín		inheritance							See Language page
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis famililaris	areimaraaká	areimaraaká		unknown		shared Pemon; prob. loan into Wapishana	Probably a loan into Arawak Wapishana: aɽimaɽak; similar form occurs in Pemon, Akawaiao; Simpson 1941 claims that these words are of Carib origin.				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Not native; widespread	no
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna		areimaraaká	areimaraaká		loan direction unknown		Arawak					See Language page
dog (wild; bush dog)	sachaperro, Perro de Monte, Zorro Vinagre, Guanfando; Zorro Ojizarco, Zorro Negro, Perro de Orejas Corta	cachorro-do-mato	flora-fauna	Speothos venaticus; Atelocynus microtis				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	family Columbidae	áyà	áyà		unique							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae family	maiwá	maiwá		inheritance	N Amazonian subgroup						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
edible palm-dwelling larva (palm weevil)	suri, mojojoy	larva, broca-do-coqueiro, aramandaiá	flora-fauna	Rhynchophorus sp.	arariʔ (SM)	arariʔ (SM)		unknown							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
electric eel	anguila eléctrica	poraquê	flora-fauna	Electrophorus electricus	aríŋrá	aríŋrá		inheritance	N Amazonian subgroup (Akawaio, Pemon, Makushi, Eñepa)						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		yes
firefly, lightning bug	lampírido, luciérnaga (Peru), añañahui (Peru), cocuyo (attributed Taino origin)	vagalume	flora-fauna	fam: Elateridae, Fengodidae, Lampyridae				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		moróʔ	moróʔ		inheritance	Northern Carib? (Akawaio, Makushi, Mapoyo, Pemon)		Doubtful loan into Hodï: bõʰtõ				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
fish (large type)	paiche, pirarucú o arapaima	pirarucu	flora-fauna	Arapaima gigas				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	big rivers only	no
fish poison, barbasco	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	flora-fauna	Lonchocarpus spp.	aya	aja		inheritance							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	secondary forests and secondary srcrub vegetation	yes [used to poison people]	shrub/tree
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	order Siphonaptera	sikɨ́	sikɨ́		inheritance	Northern Carib?		But compare Secoya sɨk̃ɨ. Also ‘kutʃika’hamo (H&R)				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
genipap	jagua, majagua - Colombia, caruto, xagua - Venezuela, bigrande - Bolivia, huito, yaguayagua - Peru, ygualti - Nicaragua, maluco - Mexico	genipapo, jenipapo	flora-fauna	Genipapa americana				missing							See Language page	1	0	0	0	0	widespread lowland SA	no	shrub
giant otter	Lobo Grande de Río, nutria gigante, lutria	ariranha	flora-fauna	Pteronura brasiliensis				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(generic)	wanaʔ (SM)			inheritance	Northern Carib?						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
gray-winged trumpeter	Grulla, Trompetero Ala Gris	jacamim	flora-fauna	Psophia crepitans				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Northern Amazonia (N of Solimões), not in northern Colombia; Dark-winged trumpeter is found south of Solimões	no
great egret	Garza Blanca, Guyratî	Garça-Branca-Grande	flora-fauna	Ardea alba				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread South America	no
green acouchi	Guatín, Punchana, curi, picurito rabudo, picurito rabilargo	cutiara	flora-fauna	Myoprocta pratti				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
guan	pava, pucacunga (Peru), pava de Spix (Peru)	jacu	flora-fauna	Penelope sp.	maaká	maaká		unknown							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Different types have different localized ranges	no
hallucinogenic snuff	vilca, cebil, yopo	paricá, yopo	flora-fauna	Anadenanthera sp. or virola											See Language page
hallucinogenic vine, banisterium, ayahuasca	ayahuasca, yage	ayahuasca, caapi	flora-fauna	Banisteriopsis caapi				missing							See Language page	1	0	0	1	0	semi-domesticated, native to Amazonian basin, esp. NW	no	vine
hawk	halcón, gavilán	gavião	flora-fauna	family Accipitridae				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
honeybee	abeja	abelha	flora-fauna	Apis mellifera; Tetragonisca angustula; Trigona amazonensis	wáŋ	wáŋ		inheritance	Northern Carib?						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0
hot pepper	ají, pimentón/pimiento rojo, pucunucho (Peru), charapilla (Peru)	pimenta	flora-fauna	Capsicum sp., principally chinensis and frutescens	pimí	pimí		inheritance	Unknown						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation, indigenous garden	no	plant
howler monkey (red-handed)	mono aullador, mono coto (Peru)	guariba	flora-fauna	Alouatta belzebul [or other Alouatta sp.]				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	family Trochilidae	tukúí	tukúí		inheritance	Northern Carib?		Loan Carib > Hodï: tu'kudi				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread	no
iguana	iguana, garipiares (Colombia)	camaleão	flora-fauna	Iguana sp.				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	iguana' is reportedly from Arawak iwana
inga	guaba, guamo, guama, shimbillo (Peru)	inga	flora-fauna	Inga spp.				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Secondary scrub vegetation and indigenous gardens. North and South America (Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Suriname, Colombia)	no
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0
jaguar	yaguar, yaguareté, jaguar, otorongo (Peru), tigre (Peru)	onca	flora-fauna	Panthera onca	kaikusi (SM)	kaikusi (SM)		inheritance	Unknown (shared Carijona and Makushi)						See Language page	1	2	0	0	0		yes
japurá	oreja de murcielago	japurá	flora-fauna	Erisma japura				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	large tree
kapok	ceiba, huimba, lupuna (Peru for Ceiba sp.)	sumaumeira	flora-fauna	Ceiba pentandra				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	northern South America and central America; common in disturbed areas	no	tree
kingfisher	martín pescador, catalan (Peru)	martim-pescador	flora-fauna	family Alcedinidae				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
leaf-cutter ant	Colombia: zampopo, hormiga arriera; Venezuela: bachaco; Peru: curuhuinse	saúva	flora-fauna	Atta sp.				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
macaw	ara, guacamaya	Arara	flora-fauna	family Psittacidae; Ara sp.	kararúá	kararúá		unknown		possible %arara form?	May be loan into Ninam: kaɾaɾawasi	WW	%ara		See Language page	1	1	0	0	1	Widespread Amazonia	no
maize, corn	mazorca, maiz	milho	flora-fauna	Zea mays	aʔanáí	aʔanáí		inheritance?	Proto-Carib	possible loan into proto-Carib, cf. Arawak mariki and TG aBati					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	widespread, esp. in river floodplains	no	plant
manatee	vaca marina, manatí	peixe-boi	flora-fauna	Trichechus sp.	akasari (SM)	akasari (SM)		unknown							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mandi catfish	maparate (used in Peru for some types of catfish, including Auchenipterus sp.), cunchi (used in Peru for some types of catfish), bagre (catfish)	mandi	flora-fauna	Auchenipterus sp.				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
manioc (bitter or generic)	yuca brava	mandioca	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	kɨséra (generic manioc)	kɨséra (generic manioc)		inheritance			May be source of Pt macaxeira (sweet manioc); may also be related (old loan?) to Arawak kani- forms			Broader (manioc)	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	not generally cultivated in western (subAndean) Amazon. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) argues for a correlation with distribution of dark earths, mostly formed after 1AD, and the modeled-incised pottery tradition.	no	Provides more starch and is more pest-resistant than the sweet variety, but requires much processing. Arroyo-Kalin (2010) proposes that bitter type was developed from sweet through post-ceremic agricultural intensification (motivated by high starch yield
manioc (sweet)	yuca, caribe	macaxeira	flora-fauna	Manihot esculenta	kɨséra (generic manioc)	kɨséra (generic manioc)		missing			May be source of Pt macaxeira (sweet manioc); may also be related (old loan?) to Arawak kani- forms			Broader (manioc)	See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Primary staple in western/subAndean Amazonia, less important elsewhere	no	No processing required, but lower starch yield and pest resistance than bitter variety
miriti palm	moriche (Col, Ven), aguaje (Col, Peru), achual, miriti	buriti	flora-fauna	Mauritia flexuosa	kawai (SM)	kawai (SM)		inheritance							See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Venezuela; in and near swamps	no	trunks contain sago-like starch
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles sp.	kankɨ' (SM)	kankɨʔ (SM)		unique							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	order Lepidoptera				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mouse, rat	ratón	camundongo, rata	flora-fauna	Mus musculus				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
mushroom	champiñón, hongo	cogumelo	flora-fauna	(any edible generic)				missing							See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no	prioritize generic term that includes any edible species
neotropical otter (small)	Nutria, Lobo de Agua, lobito de rio, perro de agua (Colombia)	lontra	flora-fauna	Lontra longicaudis				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
opossum	zarigüeya, rabipelado, zorro, zorrillo	mucura	flora-fauna	family Didelphidae				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
owl (large)	búho, lechuza	corujão	flora-fauna	order Strigiformes				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread	no
paca (lowland)	Guanta, Paca, Majaz, majás (Peru), labba (Guyana)	paca	flora-fauna	Cuniculus paca (Agouti paca is sometimes used as well although cuniculus is the correct term.)				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
pacu fish	palometa, garopita, garopa, curhuara (Peru)	pacu	flora-fauna	Mylossoma sp.	waitaʔ (SM)	waitaʔ (SM)		unknown							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
palm for roof thatch	pui, irapay, hoja de irapay, caraná	caraná	flora-fauna	Mauritiella armata OR Lepidocaryum tenue (irapay), Mauritius carana				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Mauritia carana is limited principally to the Rio Negro and Upper Orinoco regions; dry catinga forests	no	palm
parrot	loro real, loro (Sp. form is a loan from Carib)	papagaio	flora-fauna	Amazona amazonica	woroké	woroké		doubtful loan		Arawak waru					See Language page	1	0	0	0	1	Widespread	no
paxiuba palm	pona, huacrapona, cashapona, macanilla, pachiuba	paxiuba	flora-fauna	Iriartea exorrhiza OR Iriartea deltoidea				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no	palm
peach palm, pejibaye palm	chontaduro (Col, Ecuador); pipire (Col); pijuayo (Peru), pijiguao (Ven); tembe (Bol)	pupunha	flora-fauna	Bactris gasipaes				missing							See Language page	2	1	0	0	0		no
peanut	maní (may be loan from Taino Arawak), cacahuete	amendoim	flora-fauna	Arachis hypogaea	aʔnɨpu (SM)	aʔnɨpu (SM)		inheritance	N Amazonian group (attested Makushi, Pemon)						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
pineapple	piña	abacaxi	flora-fauna	Ananas comosus	kaiurá	kaiurá		semantic shift?	N Amazonian group (attested Pemon, Akawaio, Makushi)	caraua?					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
pirana	piraña, caribe	piranha	flora-fauna	subfamily Serrasalmidae				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no [not in this region]
porcupine	puerco espín, erizo (Peru), casha cushillo (Peru)	cuandu, porco-espinho	flora-fauna	family Erethizontidae	árú	árú		inheritance	Northern Carib? (attested Pemon, Akawaio, Makushi, Wai Wai)	East Tukanoan	e.g. Desano /wáru/				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
potato	papa	batata	flora-fauna	Solanum tuberosum	karisa (SM)	karisa (SM)		unique							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	secondary scrub vegetation	no	compare entries for sweet potato
potato, sweet potato	camote, batata dulce, batata, cumara	batata-doce	flora-fauna	Ipomoea batatas	karisa (SM)	karisa (SM)		loan		Arawak					See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
praying mantis, stick insects	mantis religiosa	louva-a-deus	flora-fauna	order Mantodea, family Mantidae				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
rubber tree (sorva)	caucho, siringa, shiringa	seringa, borracha	flora-fauna	Hevea sp.				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no	tree
scorpion	escorpión; alacran	escorpião	flora-fauna	order Scorpiones				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		yes
seje palm	ungurahui (Peru), palma de seje, milpesos, patabá	patoá, patuá	flora-fauna	Jessenia bataua, aka Oenocarpus bataua				missing							See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	mostly north of Equator; common in Amazonia		may be confused with O. bacaba - compare entries
sloth	pereza, pelejo (Peru), perezoso (Peru)	macaco preguica	flora-fauna	Choloepus sp., Bradypus sp.				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
small lizard	lagartija	calango	flora-fauna	order Squamata	wairore (SM)	wairore (SM)		inheritance							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
snail	caracol, churo (Peru)	caracol	flora-fauna	class Gastropoda				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		ikɨ́í	ikɨ́í		inheritance	Northern Carib?						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
snake (poisonous generic) or rattlesnake	víbora (Peru), jergón (Peru), yarara	jararaca	flora-fauna	Bothrops jararaca/atrox				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread South America	yes
speckled catfish	surubí, pintadillo	surubim, sorubim	flora-fauna	Pseudoplatystoma sp.				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnidae, Araneae				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
squash	calabaza, calabacines, auyamas, zapallos, huingo (Peru)	abóbora	flora-fauna	Cucurbita sp.	kaiyuma (SM)	kaiyuma (SM)		inheritance	Attested Makushi, Eñepa	North Arawak	Wapishana: kʰauwiam				See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no	plant
squirrel	ardilla, danta (Ven)	serelepe, quatipuru, esquilo	flora-fauna	family Sciuridae				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
stingray (generic)	rayas látigo, raya	arraia	flora-fauna	Potamotrygon sp.				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
tannia, yautia	huitina (Peru), ñame	taioba branca	flora-fauna	Xanthosoma spp.	pomói	pomói		unique							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
tapir	sachavaca, danta	anta	flora-fauna	Tapirus terrestris	wairá	wairá		inheritance	Pemongan? (attested Pemon, Makushi, Yabarana, maybe Makiritare)						See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
termites, white-ants	comején (Peru), termitas	cupim	flora-fauna	order Isoptera				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
tick	garrapata	carrapato	flora-fauna	superfam Ixodoidea	karimitɨ (SM)	karimitɨ (SM)		inheritance	Pemongan group (attested Makushi, Pemon)						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0		no
tigerfish	taraira, guabina, huasaco (Peru)	traíra	flora-fauna	Hoplias sp.	kurúútú	kurúútú		unknown							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
tinamou	tinamu, perdiz, gallineta	inambu, inhambu	flora-fauna	family Tinamidae				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	order Anura	kúí (small frog)	kúí (small frog)	small frog	unknown			May be cognate with other Carib kuu- forms; but see also Achagua kuíiba				See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana tabacum	kawáí	kawáí		doubtful loan into protolanguage	Northern Carib?	possibly from Arawak 'kuwai' deity? Venezuelan Carib	Likely loan into Hodï: Hodï ʰkawoi. Also tamu				See Language page	1	0	0	0	1		no	plant
tortoise (red foot, yellow foot/giant)	tortuga, morrocoy, motelo	jabutí, tartaruga	flora-fauna	Yellow-footed: Geochelone denticulata; Red-footed: Geochelone carbonaria	wayamuri (SM)	wayamuri (SM)		inheritance	Northern Carib? (attested Akawaio, Pemon, Makushi, Wai Wai)						See Language page	2	1	0	0	0	Widespread	no
toucan	tucán, pinsha (Peru)	tucano	flora-fauna	Ramphastos sp.				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna		yéi	yéi		inheritance	Northern Carib?						See Language page	0	0	0	0	0
tufted capuchin monkey	mono negro (Peru), Machín Negro, Maicero Cachón, mono maicero	macaco prego	flora-fauna	Cebus apella				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
ucuqui	yugo, caimitillo del monte (Peru)	ucuqui	flora-fauna	Pouteria ucuqui				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0	native to NW Amazonia, found primarily in Vaupes and Caqueta regions	no	other species of Pouteria exist and have much-used edible fruit; these can be subsituted where relevant
vulture	buitre, gallinazo, rinahui (Peru)	urubu	flora-fauna	family Cathartidae	kurun (SM)	kurun (SM)		inheritance	Northern Carib?	cf. TG urubu	Likely loan into Warekena (Arawak): kuɺuwitu				See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread South America	no
wasp	avispa; specific type: ronzapa/ronsapa	caba	flora-fauna	order Hymenoptera, sub: Apocrita	kamarakkoʔ (SM)	kamarakkoʔ (SM)		unknown							See Language page	0	2	0	0	0		no
white-fronted capuchin	Machín Blanco, mono blanco, Maicero Cariblanco, mono blanco (Peru)	Caiarara	flora-fauna	Cebus albifrons				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
white-fronted spider monkey	Machin Blanco, Mono Araña de Vientre Amarillo, maquisapa (Peru), braceadora (Colombia)	macaco aranha, coatá, quatá	flora-fauna	Ateles belzebuth/paniscus				missing							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
white-lipped peccary	Chancho de Monte, Cariblanco, Huangana	queixada	flora-fauna	Tayassu pecari	pɨinkɨ (SM)	pɨinkɨ (SM)		inheritance							See Language page	0	1	0	0	0		no
woodpecker	pájaro carpintero, carpintero	pica-pau	flora-fauna	family Picidae				missing							See Language page	0	0	0	0	0	Widespread Amazonia	no

Showing 1 to 138 of 138 entries

Cultural Vocabulary (106)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology	kaʔ	kaʔ	heaven	unknown									See Language page
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	rupé	rupé		unknown					Possible inheritance with metathesis?			hunting, warfare	See Language page
axe/stone axe	hacha (de piedra)	machado (de pedra)	subsistence tool	waaká	waaká		inheritance	Venezuelan (N. Amazonian) subgroup							especially for clearing fields	See Language page
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool	musun		bait (general)	unknown								can refer to worms; more generic	See Language page
basin/bowl	tazón, plato hondo, taza	tijela	culture-material	pisaʔ			unknown									See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	wariʔsa			Inheritance	Pemongan subgroup				Also: wopá, waikaraʔpɨ				See Language page
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	wopá, wariʔsa	wopá, wariʔsa		unique; inheritance									See Language page
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material				missing									See Language page
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material	kaʔsiru	kaʔsiru		loan - WW	Pemongan subgroup	%kasiru							See Language page
bed	cama	cama	culture-material	atta	atta		unknown					See similar form for 'bench' in Makiritare; possible Arawak loan				See Language page
bench, seat	banco, silla, asiento	banco	culture-material	aponó	aponó		inheritance	Proto-Carib								See Language page
blowgun	cerbatana, pucuna (Peru)	zarabatana	subsistence tool	kuraʔ (SM)	kuraʔ (SM)		inheritance	Venezuelan (N. Amazonian) subgroup				Maybe Proto-Carib			currently limited to certain groups (favoring h-g orientation, e.g. Nadahup) within RN region	See Language page
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation				missing									See Language page
bottom grinding stone			manufacture				missing								if different word from top grinding stone	See Language page
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	uraapa (SM)	uraapa (SM)		inheritance	Proto-Carib							arco	See Language page
broom	escoba	vassoura	culture-material	tuʔtɨmai	tuʔtɨmai		unique									See Language page
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	kanáwa	kanáwa		doubtful loan (into protolg?) - WW		%kanawa	WW	%kanawa	WW occurs in e.g. Wapishana, khanawa; various Carib (kanau, kanawa, kanowa, kanáw); Guayabero, kanáw; Candoshi, kánó; Jivaro, kán; Matses, cano; Napo Lowland Quichua, kanu; Siriano, cũma; Yanomam (kanaw, kanae). Ultimate source sometimes claimed to be Car				See Language page
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	pisana	pisana		loan - WW		%pisana	WW	%pisana	probably originally from Port bicho 'small animal'; compare E. Tukano, (e.g. Desano pisana); Arawak (e.g. Tariana pisána); Carib (Makushi pisana; Pemon pitʃana); Kakua pitʃina. But note Quechua 'broom' pitʃana				See Language page
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	kariwana	kariwana		loan		Span/Port 'gallina' (cf. Nordenskiold 1922:29)							See Language page
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	póotɨ-rɨ			unique									See Language page
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	pon (SM)	pon (SM)		inheritance									See Language page
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool	aroʔ			missing					Compare Nadeb RN kawi.daɾo				See Language page
coca			narcotics				Missing									See Language page
cook food			food	rentɨ			Unknown					Maybe shared Pemon				See Language page
Curupira (spirit type)	Curupira, Madremonte	Curupira	culture-mythology		oʔma [?]		missing								malignant forest spirit, covered with long hair, feet turned backward; in Upper Rio Negro region	See Language page
dance (generic)			culture-mythology	mananu			Inheritance	Pemongan subgroup								See Language page
dart (blowgun)	dardo, birote (Peru), bala (Peru)	dardo, seta	subsistence tool				missing								hunting and warfare	See Language page
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology	paapa	paapa	god	semantic shift		father'			Probably from 'father'			In RN region, frequently translates as 'Bone-Son', 'One on the bone', etc.	See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool				Missing									See Language page
digging stick			subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	eʔmoronoʔpe	eʔmoronoʔpe		inheritance	Pemongan subgroup								See Language page
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
drum (large signal)	tambor, manguaré, maguaré (Colombia)	tambor	culture				missing								Used to be used by Tukanoan peoples (and others?), sound carried for long distances	See Language page
fan	abanico	abanador, abano	subsistence tool	wuríwóʔ	wuríwóʔ		inheritance	Proto-Carib							esp. for fanning a cooking fire	See Language page
feather headdress	plumaje, corona de plumas	enfeite/capacete de penas	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
fence, palisade	cerco	cerca	other	seereka (SM)	seereka (SM)		loan		Spanish/Portuguese						may be related to defense/warfare?	See Language page
fermented drink	masato, chicha	caxiri, chicha	culture	kasiri	kasiri		inheritance								prioritizes manioc beer where distinction is made	See Language page
fetish, charm	fetiche, encanto, filtro de amor, pusanga	feitiço, puçanga	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other				missing									See Language page
firewood	leña	lenha	other	apoʔ-keme (SIL)	apoʔ-keme (SIL)		inheritance	Venezuelan (N. Amazonian) subgroup								See Language page
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food				missing									See Language page
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	euʔka (SM)	euʔka (SM)		unique									See Language page
fish poison	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	subsistence tool	aja			Inheritance	Venezuelan (N. Amazonian) subgroup								See Language page
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool	konoi jewa	konoi jewa		inheritance	Pemongan subgroup					Compound	fishhook string'		See Language page
fishtrap	trampa de peces, trampa	matapi, cacuri	subsistence tool	tarápa (fishing net), simú (fish trap); pentɨ (IDS)	tarápa (fishing net), simú (fish trap); pentɨ (IDS)		unknown					Alternate: tarápa				See Language page
flat bread, cassava bread	pan de yuca, casabe/cazabe	beiju	food	ikkéí	ikkéí		inheritance	Pemongan subgroup							usually manioc; agriculture, but also can be made from certain wild seeds/fruits	See Language page
flour/meal from manioc	fariña, mañoco (Venezuela); harina	farinha	food	ùʔwí	ùʔwí		loan		Tupi-Guarani?	WW	%uʔwi	Yucuna uʔuwí, Macushi ùʔwí; Nheengatu uĩ: Mello: TG *uʔi			agriculture	See Language page
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology				missing								multiple types? japurutu, deer-bone, etc.	See Language page
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food	kamo (SM)	kamo (SM)		inheritance								Interesting correlation to 'fish' in Tukanoan languages	See Language page
genipap			culture-mythology				Missing									See Language page
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	ekaton (SM)	ekaton (SM)		inheritance									See Language page
gourd (dipper/bowl)	cucharón, pate (Peru), totomo, totuma, totumo	cuia	subsistence tool	pisa (SM)	pisa (SM)	gourd	inheritance	Proto-Carib	cf. Yukpa			Attested Macushi, Yukpa, Eñepa				See Language page
grater	rallador, rallo	ralador, ralo	subsistence tool	súmarí	súmarí		inheritance	Proto-Carib				Probably Carib loan in Paresi tʃimjare			esp. for grating manioc, but can be used for other things as well	See Language page
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology	uuruwai	uuruwai		unknown									See Language page
grid of sticks for smoking meat or placing objects (shelf)	barbacoa	jirau	subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
griddle for cooking flatbread	tiesto (Colombia), budare (Venezuela), tortera (Peru)	forno para beiju	subsistence tool				missing								agriculture?	See Language page
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	arakkapusaʔ	arakkapusaʔ		loan		Spanish 'escopeta'			Attested Akawaio, Eñepa, Macushi				See Language page
hammock	hamaca, chinchorro	rede	culture-material	áttá	áttá		inheritance	Proto-Carib?				Attested Venezuelan and Guianan branches				See Language page
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	aroʔ	aroʔ		semantic shift	Venezuelan (N. Amazonian) subgroup	from 'headdress'							See Language page
healer	curandero	benzador, curandeiro, kumu (Tukano)	culture-mythology				inheritance								Refers to a lower-level healer; in RN region, most older men in a village have this capacity, and command a repertoire of healing spells. Power is primarily for good, whereas the true shaman is capable of malignant acts as well.	See Language page
hollow log/trough for beer-making	canoa para chicha	cocho de caxiri	narcotics	atapuwa (SM)	atapuwa (SM)		unknown									See Language page
honey	miel	mel	food	wan (SM)	wan (SM)		inheritance	Proto-Carib							only gathered in wild throughout Amazonia?	See Language page
house			other	wɨttɨ (IDS), ewɨʔ (SM)	wɨttɨ (IDS), ewɨʔ (SM)		unknown									See Language page
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	woʔna (SM)	woʔna (SM)		inheritance	Pemongan subgroup								See Language page
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	tawará	tawará		unique	Pemongan subgroup	shared Pemon							See Language page
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress		jaʔsan		Missing									See Language page
machete	machete	facão	culture-material	kusupará	kusupará		loan - WW		%sipara/sapere	WW	%sapara	Carib (e.g. Pemon kusupará); Urarina sa:beɽe; Iquito sáhuiri; Sikuani sipari (axe); Carib (spear)				See Language page
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool	séni	séni		unique									See Language page
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	naire	naire		inheritance									See Language page
paint body, body paint	pintura corporal	pintura corporal	culture-mythology													See Language page
panpipe	carrizo, zampoñas, flautas de pan, rondadora	caniço, flauta de pã	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	kaareta	kaareta		loan		Span/Port 'carta'			From Port. 'carta (letter)'				See Language page
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool	aʔyainon (SM)	aʔyainon (SM)		unknown									See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other	paipa			Loan		Spanish							See Language page
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other		pipe		loan		Spanish							See Language page
plate	plato	prato	culture-material	pɨratu (SM)	pɨratu (SM)		loan		Spanish/Portuguese			Nheengatu parátu (from POR); see also Arawak (e..g Yucuna paɾatú); Carib (e.g. Makushi pɨratu); Jivaro (e.g. Aguaruna parátu); Hup padatu=b'ɔk				See Language page
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation				missing									See Language page
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	ɨiní	ɨiní		inheritance	Proto-Carib?				Attested Venezuelan + Guiana branches				See Language page
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology	iwaiji	iwaiji		unknown									See Language page
resin	resina, brea, copal	resina, brea, breu	subsistence tool	eʔku (SM), maitikin (Freitas 2003)	eʔku (SM), maitikin (Freitas 2003)		unknown; unknown									See Language page
ritual song cycle (kapiwaya)	kapiwaya	capiwaya	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	eʔseusa (IDS)	eʔseusa (IDS)		inheritance									See Language page
salt	sal	sal	food	pan	pan		inheritance	Proto-Carib?								See Language page
school	escuela	escola	acculturation				missing									See Language page
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology	píásaŋ	píásaŋ		inheritance	Proto-Carib?				Attested Venezuelan + Guiana branches			In RN region, there is typically one person per village (if that) who is a full-fledged 'shaman'. He is very much a specialist and has considerable power to cure, as well as power to curse. He is respected and feared. Shamans are thought to turn themselv	See Language page
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress	pisaʔsaʔ	pisaʔsaʔ		unknown									See Language page
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material	u-saja-ri	u-saja-ri		loan		Port/Span saia	WW	%saja	Port > Nheengatu > others? Arawak (e.g. Baniwa tsʰaaja); Makushi u-saja-ri; Wanano saya si; Nheengatu saja; Ninam saja	Phrase	u=my; saya=skirt; ri= possession		See Language page
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation	surara	surara		loan - WW		%surara	WW	%surara	Port via Nheengatu; also in Arawak, Carib, East Tukanoan, Yanomamo. Nheengatu surara; Makushi surara; Hup sudadu; East Tukanoan (e.g. Cubeo ʈʃulala); Ninam sotatu				See Language page
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
spearthrower			subsistence tool				missing									See Language page
starch (tapioca, other)	almidón	goma de tapioca	food	ímú	ímú		inheritance	Pemongan subgroup								See Language page
stone for lighting fires	piedra para hacer fuego	pedra para acender fogo	culture-material				missing									See Language page
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	aʔkiʔku	aʔkiʔku		unknown									See Language page
tapioca drink, mingau	cahuana, caguana	mingau	food				missing								agriculture	See Language page
tattoo	tatuaje, tatu	tatuagem	culture-mythology				missing									See Language page
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material	kuwai jare	kuwai jare		unknown						Other complex	kuwai=??; yare= leaf		See Language page
tipiti (manioc squeezer)	tipiti, matafrio, sebucán, exprimador, prensa para yuca	tipiti	food	tɨnkiʔ (SM)	tɨnkiʔ (SM)		inheritance	Venezuelan (N. Amazonian) subgroup							word of Tupi origin; agriculture: specifically for squeezing poison out of manioc	See Language page
tobacco (native)			narcotics	kawáí			Inheritance	Venezuelan (N. Amazonian) subgroup				Likely loan into Hodi ʰkawoi				See Language page
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture				missing								use word for top grinding stone if different from bottom stone	See Language page
tripod for washing manioc	trípode	tripé	subsistence tool				missing								agriculture	See Language page
venom for darts, poison	veneno	curare	subsistence tool	maiʔpa-i-ya maiʔ ke	maiʔpa-i-ja maiʔ ke	poison	unknown								hunting, currently is falling out of use in Vaupés region, associated primarily with h-g groups (but this may be recent?)	See Language page
wax	cera	cera	other	moronpɨ	moronpɨ	beeswax	inheritance	Pemongan subgroup								See Language page
woven strainer/sieve	colador tejido, cedazo (Peru), cernedor (Peru)	peneira, cumatá	subsistence tool	yainonka	jainonka		inheritance	Pemongan subgroup							agriculture? commonly used for sifting dry manioc flour	See Language page
yurupari, jurupari (or any flutes forbidden to women)	yurupari	jurupari	culture-mythology				missing								a ritual complex in various parts of Amazonia involving sacred flutes/trumpets, forbidden to women.	See Language page

Showing 1 to 106 of 106 entries

Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status	Grammatical Notes	Source	General Notes
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced	yes		Carson 1982: 60
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection	no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991	No evidence of this; examples support an answer of "no."
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word	no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991	No evidence of this; examples support an answer of "no."
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'	no info		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs	yes	ená 'become', wanɨ 'be', komámɨ 'stay, remain', mápɨɨtɨɨ 'cause' and kúpɨ 'force'	Carson 1982: 136
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]	yes	person-markers, aspect, tense and number	Abbott 1991: 113
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word	yes		Abbott 1991: 113
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no		Abbott 1991: 113-115
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes		Abbott 1991: 113-115
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no		Abbott 1991: 113-115
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	yes	Seen when conveying a large (numeral) number.	Carson 1982:73
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	yes	Seen when indicating second person singular.	Carson 1982:97
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment	yes		Carson 1982:105
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns	no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients	yes	location, time, manner, instrument, comparison, comitative, benefactive and source (p. 111)	Abbott 1991: 110-112
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	6	Agentive: -ya, dative: -piá, benefactive: -tompé, locative: -po, instrument: -ke	Carson 1982: 78-79
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are	no		Carson 1982: 78-79
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	yes	"[the agent marker] is not used with subjects of intransitive verbs"; only subjects of transitive verbs are marked (unmarked absolutive).	Carson 1982: 79
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no		Carson 1982: 79
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes		Carson 1982: 78
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic		no		Carson 1982: 78
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic		no		Carson 1982: 78
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change		no		Carson 1982: 78-86
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone		no		Carson 1982: 78-86
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no		Carson 1982: 78-86
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991	No reference to articles given in source- consistent w/ other Carib lgs; I know there are no articles in Macushi, but can't find a place where this is explicitely stated.
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness	no		Carson 1982: 64-68
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no		Carson 1982: 64-68
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	yes		Carson 1982: 89
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no		Carson 1982:
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	2	near' and 'at a distance'	Carson 1982: 92-93
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)		yes	time, location	Carson 1982:113
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	yes		Carson 1982: 56
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	3	Class A, B and C. Class A is 'animate related'. Class B refers to all domestic animals. Class C includes kinship and body part nouns.	Carson 1982: 56-57
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.	yes	nominalizers: '-toʔ' (gerundive), '-kói', plural '-kon' (perfermer of the verb), '-eŋ' (actor/one who), 'n-eŋ' (agentive), 'tɨ-…-s-eŋ' (patient, reflexive patient)	Carson 1982: 61-4
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter	no	"Macuxi does not make productive use of grammatical gender."	Carson 1992: 77
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Carson 1992: 77
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human	yes	Class A, B and C. Class A is 'animate related'. Class B refers to all domestic animals. Class C includes kinship and body part nouns.	Carson 1982: 56-57
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only	no		Carson 1992: 77
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates		no		Carson 1992: 55-86
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates		no		Carson 1992: 55-86
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"	no		Carson 1992: 55-86
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no		Carson 1982: 56-58
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'	yes	nominalizers: '-toʔ' (gerundive), '-kói', plural '-kon' (perfermer of the verb), '-eŋ' (actor/one who), 'n-eŋ' (agentive), 'tɨ-…-s-eŋ' (patient, reflexive patient)	Carson 1982: 61-4
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups	no		Carson 1982:73-77
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes		Carson 1982:73-77
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no		Carson 1982:73-77
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no		Carson 1982:73-77
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no		Carson 1982:73-77
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		no		Carson 1982: 73-75
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	yes		Carson 1982: 89	*This seems a bit odd to me- pronouns using the inanimate plural marker rather than the animate one- re-read section and still got same conclusion
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	no		Carson 1982: 89
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no		Carson 1982: 70
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	no		Carson 1982: 70
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	no		Carson 1982: 70
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	3	The numerals to number three are primitive roots. All of the other numbers are derived in combination with words for hand 'miá', foot '-púu' and person 'pemoŋkoŋ'	Carson 1982: 68-70
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'	no		Carson 1982: 68-73
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Carson 1982: 68-73
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no		Carson 1982: 68-73
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes	Aspect (on nouns).	Carson 1982:112
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival	yes	Nominal.	Carson 1982:105
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		no		Abbott 1991: 99
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no		Abbott 1991: 99
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no		Abbott 1991: 99
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no		Abbott 1991: 99
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix	yes		Abbott 1991: 37, 85	"expressed by means of the detransitivizer verb prefix"- Ex S on 85 shows a pre-position refl marker
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes	no	"There are no adjectives. Only nouns occur to modify nouns in noun phrases"	Abbott 1991: 128
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco	no	"There are no adjectives. Only nouns occur to modify nouns in noun phrases"	Abbott 1991: 129
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb	yes		Abbott 1991: 95
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb	yes		Abbott 1991: 93
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb	yes		Abbott 1991: 96
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective	yes		Carson 1982:134
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	yes	Comitative phrases receive a marker of subordination, while NP coordination utilizes conjunctions.	Carson 1982:164-167
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes		Abbott 1991: 101
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no		Carson 1982: 57
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	no		Carson 1982:104-112
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes		Carson 1982:104-112
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities	no		Carson 1982: 56-58
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	no	"The possession suffix must occur on alienably posessed items…. The inalienably possessed item never, except in past possession, occurs with the posession suffix, but only with the possessor prefix." The possessor prefix is a pronominal form.	Abbott 1991: 85
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)	yes	"The possession suffix must occur on alienably posessed items…. The inalienably possessed item never, except in past possession, occurs with the posession suffix, but only with the possessor prefix"	Abbott 1991: 85
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form	no		Abbott 1991: 85
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father	yes		Carson 1982: 58
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg	yes		Carson 1982: 58
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)	no	This does not appear to be the case from the Macushi texts in Abbott	Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.	yes		Abbott 1991
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no		Abbott 1991: 140-148
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast	no		Abbott 1991: 140-148
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?	yes		Abbott 1991: 143
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels		no		Abbott 1991: 140-148
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme	no		Abbott 1991: 145-147	Note from phonology sheet says CCV occurs in only one grammatical morpheme, however I was not able to locate it in the source cited. Relevant information: "Occasionally long consonants occur. These are indicated by writing two consonants together and they
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]	no		Abbott 1991: 140-148
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?	no		Abbott 1991: 140-148
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no		Abbott 1991: 140-148
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?	no		Abbott 1991: 140-148
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments	no		Abbott 1991: 140-148
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?	no		Abbott 1991: 140-148
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony		no		Abbott 1991: 140-148
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	no		Carson 1982: 79
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no		Carson 1982: 79
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	yes		Carson 1982: 79
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no		Carson 1982: 79
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		no	The subject of transitive clauses is marked by the suffix -ya, both when it is a free form nominal or pronominal, and when it is a verbal suffix. Intransitive subject and transitive object are not marked.	Abbott 1991: 83
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no		Abbott 1991: 83
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	yes		Abbott 1991: 83
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no		Abbott 1991: 83
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	no	The subject of transitive clauses is marked by the suffix -ya, both when it is a free form nominal or pronominal, and when it is a verbal suffix. Intransitive subject and transitive object are not marked.	Abbott 1991: 83
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	yes		Abbott 1991: 83
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no		Abbott 1991: 83
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no		Abbott 1991: 83
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no	"Macushi has an ergative case-marking system that operates in both main clauses and subordinate clauses."	Abbott 1991: 83
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)	yes		Carson 1982:157
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	no	Polar questions do not have any overt marking other than the intonation. The word order remains the same for declarative clauses.	Abbott 1991: 46
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no	Polar questions do not have any overt marking other than the intonation. The word order remains the same for declarative clauses.	Abbott 1991: 46
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no	Polar questions do not have any overt marking other than the intonation. The word order remains the same for declarative clauses.	Abbott 1991: 46
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	yes	Polar questions do not have any overt marking other than the intonation. The word order remains the same for declarative clauses.	Abbott 1991: 46
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)	no		Abbott 1991: 46-48
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element	yes		Abbott 1991: 55
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element	no		Abbott 1991: 55
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix	no		Abbott 1991: 55
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	yes		Abbott 1991: 55
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb	no		Abbott 1991: 55
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'	no	Negation is generally a sentence or clause-level morpheme, on nominals it is a suffix. There are examples of these being used together (p. 61, s. 192-3), but a double negative produces a positive result.	Abbott 1991: 55-61	No evidence shown in example sentences.
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'		no info		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase	no info		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.	no	Clausal serialization occurs, but there is no evidence of shared subject marking.	Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined	no		Abbott 1991: 72
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence	yes		Carson 1982:167
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	no	"There are no adjectives. Only nouns occur to modify nouns in noun phrases"	Abbott 1991: 129
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	no	"There are no adjectives. Only nouns occur to modify nouns in noun phrases"	Abbott 1991: 129
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	yes		Carson 1982:87-124
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)	yes	"Simple nominalization often results in an appositive relationship with another noun phrase, usually with an intonational break. The nominalized construction can also occur alone without a head noun."	Abbott 1991: 70
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.	no		Abbott 1991: 71
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause	no		Carson 1982:164-169
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix		no	A relative pronoun or a demonstrative.	Carson 1982:164-169
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)	no		Carson 1982:164-169
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	yes		Abbott 1991: 99-100
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no		Abbott 1991: 99
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	yes	free pronouns only occur in the 1+3 and 3:COLL person, otherwise are suffixed	Abbott 1991: 101	See chart
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	no		Abbott 1991: 99
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no		Abbott 1991: 99
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	yes		Abbott 1991: 101	See chart
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	yes		Abbott 1991: 101	See chart
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes		Abbott 1991: 101	See chart
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Abbott 1991: 101	See chart
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	no		Abbott 1991: 101	See chart
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no		Carson 1982:68
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	no	There are two other third person pronouns that occur only as free forms and their only syntactic function is to show possession.	Abbott 1991: 100
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	no		Abbott 1991: 101	See chart
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently	no		Carson 1982:166-169	Can't find any examples of or writing about ditransitive clauses
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	yes		Carson 1982:166-169	Can't find any examples of or writing about ditransitive clauses
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently	no		Carson 1982:166-169	Can't find any examples of or writing about ditransitive clauses
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	no		Abbott 1991: 37-38
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	no		Abbott 1991: 37-38
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	yes	Reflexives, reciprocals, and unspecified arguments are all expressed by means of the detransitivizer verb prefix at-/es-/e'-	Abbott 1991: 37-38
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes	Reflexives, reciprocals, and unspecified arguments are all expressed by means of the detransitivizer verb prefix at-/es-/e'- […] The only type of passive constructions in Macushi is the medial-passive described in section 4.1 [above].	Abbott 1991: 37-40
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no info		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency	yes	Reflexives, reciprocals, and unspecified arguments are all expressed by means of the detransitivizer verb prefix at-/es-/e'-	Abbott 1991: 37
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	yes		Carson 1982:81
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	no		Carson 1982:81
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb	no		Abbott 1991: 40-41
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb	yes	"Some intransitive verbs occur with transitivizing suffixes that may have a causativizing function: -pa". Another type of causative is expressed by the verbal suffix -me'po 'to order'.	Abbott 1991: 40-41
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix	no		Abbott 1991: 40-41
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization	yes	A causative is expressed by the transitive verb emapu'ti 'cause' occuring with a subordinate clause.	Abbott 1991: 40-41
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'	no		Abbott 1991: 40-41
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event	yes	"A causative is expressed by the transitive verb emapu'ti 'cause' occuring with a subordinate clause. When this occurs the causing agent is the subject of the main clause and the causee is the subject of the subordinate clause. (The verb of the main claus	Abbott 1991: 40-41
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency	no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere	yes		Abbott 1991: 116
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no	Past and proximate	Abbott 1991: 116
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future	no		Abbott 1991: 116
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		no		Abbott 1991: 113
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no		Abbott 1991: 113
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes		Abbott 1991: 113
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no		Abbott 1991: 113
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no		Abbott 1991: 113
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.	yes		Carson 1982: 82
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker	no	Use of various verbs convey this.	Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)	no	Use of various verbs convey this.	Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.	no	Use of various verbs convey this.	Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'	no	Use of various verbs convey this.	Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse	no	Use verbs "say, tell, ask" to convey quotative.	Carson 1982:170
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above	no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no		Carson 1982; Abbott 1991
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no	Lots of forms: 2nd person static: -kî/-tî, motion away from: -ta/-tantî, motion towards: -tane'kî/-tane'tî, future: m-…-I, future polite: mî-…-I, negative: k(î/î'/îs)-…-I; 1+2person hortative: -pai/-pai'nîkon; 3rd person: n(î)-/i-…-i	Abbott 1991: 49
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)	yes		Abbott 1991: 49
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	yes	In imperatives the verb is marked with the negative imperative affixation (see above), in demonstratives, a clause level negativizer, 'pra' occurs occurs following the clause.	Abbott 1991: 52, 55
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'	yes		Abbott 1991: 49
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	no		Abbott: 1991: 122
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction		yes	expressed by the adverb 'eserike' plus an inflected form of the copula, both of which follow the uninflected main verb	Abbott: 1991: 122
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking		no		Abbott: 1991: 122
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis	no info		Abbott 1991: 117-122
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction		no info		Abbott 1991: 117-122
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking		no info		Abbott 1991: 117-122
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected	no info		Abbott 1991: 117-122
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")	no		Abbott 1991: 117-122
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality	yes		Abbott 1991: 118
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'	no		Abbott 1991: 117-122
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'	no		Abbott 1991: 117-122
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative	no		Abbott 1991: 117-122
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction	no
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		yes	"Collective number is encoded by a verb suffix and refers to the person of the subject or object or both, but it never occurs with the person category of 1 or 1+3 or 3:PL"	Abbott 1991: 123
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no	"The normal order of nuclear constituents is subject-verb, with the exception of the transitive and quotative in which the order is object-verb-subject."	Abbott 1991: 24
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no		Abbott 1991: 24
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		yes		Abbott 1991: 24
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	no		Abbott 1991: 24
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	yes		Abbott 1991: 24
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no		Carson 1982:79-85
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes		Carson 1982:79-85
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes		Carson 1982: 56
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no		Carson 1982: 56
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	no	"There are no adjectives. Only nouns occur to modify nouns in noun phrases"	Abbott 1991: 129
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	no	"There are no adjectives. Only nouns occur to modify nouns in noun phrases"	Abbott 1991: 129
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes		Carson 1982: 113
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no		Carson 1982: 113
Word Order	Num-Noun		no		Carson 1982:73
Word Order	Noun-Num		yes		Carson 1982:73
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes		Carson 1982: 168
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no		Carson 1982: 168
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no		Carson 1982: 168
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no		Carson 1982: 168
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes		Carson 1982: 123

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