Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors

Comanche

Family
Uto-Aztecan
Region
North America
ISO 639-3
com
Location
34.57°, -98.42°
Notes
Features
Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information
Data Sources
none


Basic Vocabulary (185)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes General Notes Source
above encima, arriba acima location -pa7a "over, above, on" inheritance
again de nuevo, otra vez de novo grammar tyasy inheritance
all todo todos other ojo-, ojY inheritance
and y e grammar tyasy unknown Robinson & Armagost 1990
ankle tobillo tornozelo body miihtsI unknown
armpit axila, sobaco axila body ahnatukate, ahna unknown
ash ceniza(s) cinzas environment etysipy unique
at en, a em, a location -ka, -ky "in, at, on" inheritance
back espalda costas body kwahi inheritance
bad mal mal quality aity inheritance
belly barriga barriga body kohI, kohhi7 “small intestine, waist, abdomen” inheritance
below abajo, debajo abaixo location -tuhka "under" inheritance
big grande grande quality pia inheritance
bite morder morder body kyhka7ary (etc.) inheritance
black negro preto colour tu-, tuh-, tuhupI inheritance
blood sangre sangue body paaj “vein” (no “blood”! which would have classifying suffix) inheritance
blow soplar soprar body puuhkity “blow to cure” inheritance
boil/pimple espinilla, granos espinha, borbulha body y7a “sore” inheritance
bone hueso osso body tsuhni7 inheritance
breast pecho, seno peito body pitsii7, pItsamU inheritance
breathe respirar respirar body suahkety inheritance
burn quemar queimar environment we7hary inheritance
chew masticar, mascar mastigar body kytsYkwetY unique
child niño, niña criança human tye7ty, tyehpy7ry, tyrye, inheritance
climb subir subir motion soho ro7ity “climb up” inheritance
cloud nube nuvem environment tomo-, tomoba7atY, tomoobI semantic shift
cold frío frio quality ytsy7ity inheritance
come venir vir motion kimary inheritance
cook cocinar cozinhar impact kwasyty inheritance
correct/true verdad, de veras verdade quality tokwetY “exact, proper, just right” loan into protolanguage
count contar contar mental tyrytsyry, tytsyry unknown
cry llorar chorar mental jakety (singular) inheritance
cut/hack cortar cortar impact tykyry (with teeth or sharp edge) inheritance
day día dia time tabe- inheritance
die/be dead morir morrer state kooity (sg) inheritance
dig cavar cavar impact mahorary,tyhorary, etc. inheritance
dingo/wolf fauna ky7tseena, pia tseena7, tuhtseena7 unique
dirty sucio sujo quality nasysya7eety :dirty” unique
dream soñar sonhar mental nabUsi7aipY, nabUsi7aitY inheritance
drink beber, tomar beber body hibitY inheritance
dry seco seco quality pasakyry, pasary inheritance
dull/blunt sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo maçante, desamolado, não afiado quality kymakwa7i “dull knife” inheritance
dust polvo poeira environment huhkupY, huukupY inheritance
ear oreja orelha body nakI inheritance
earth/soil tierra terra environment sokoobI inheritance
eat comer comer body tyhkary, tyky jaarY inheritance
egg huevo ovo fauna noojO inheritance
eye ojo olho body pui inheritance
faeces heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol fezes body kwitapy inheritance
fall caer cair motion typyhery “fall off, away from” unique
far lejos longe quality manakwy “far away” inheritance
fat/grease grasa gordura body juhhu “lard, grease, fat” inheritance
father padre, papá pai kinship ahpy7 loan direction unknown
fear miedo medo mental nanakuya7ary “fearful” unique
feather pluma pena fauna sia inheritance
fire fuego fogo environment kohtoopY inheritance
fish xx xx fauna pekwi “general term” inheritance
flow fluir fluir motion okweety inheritance
flower flor flor environment totsiyaa7 inheritance
fly volar voar motion jysyry (sg), jorimi7ary (pl) “fly up, rise up” inheritance
fog niebla, neblina nevoeira, bruma, neblina environment paky7nyapy inheritance
foot pie pé body naapE inheritance
fruit fruta fruta flora pokopI inheritance
good bueno bom quality tsaa, tsaaty inheritance
grow crecer crescer state naanaary “grow in height and health” inheritance
hair (of head) cabello cabelo body tso7jaa7 unique
hand mano mão body mo7o, mo7e inheritance
3sg el/ella ele/ela grammar ma7 inheritance
head cabeza cabeça body paapI, papI semantic shift
hear oír ouvir mental nakary inheritance
heavy pesado pesado quality pyhty inheritance
hide esconder esconder motion watsitykity, wasI habiity inheritance
hit golpear, pegar bater impact tohpa7ity, tohtsi7ary “hit with fist” inheritance
hold correr, asegurar, sostener segurar other matsary “grasp” inheritance
how? como como grammar hakani inheritance
1sg yo eu grammar ny7 inheritance
if si se grammar missing
in/inside dentro, adentro dentro location -kuhpa "inside, within" inheritance
intestines intestinos intestinos body tuhkohhI “intestine” inheritance
itch hormiguear, sentir comezón coçar body pihnakety inheritance
kill matar matar impact nabehkakyru, pehkarY inheritance
know/be knowledgeable saber, conecer saber, conhecer mental masuabetaitY “know”, supana7ity “knowledgeable” inheritance
lake lago lago environment ymahpaa7 unique
laugh reír rir mental na7jYnety; inheritance
leaf hoja folha environment puhi, puhipY semantic shift
left/left hand izquierdo esquerdo location/body ohinibetutY inheritance
leg/foot pierna perna body omo-, oomO (lower) semantic shift
lie down acostarse, echarse deitar motion habiity, kwabity inheritance
lightning rayo, relámpago relampago environment ekakwitse7e inheritance
live/be alive vivir viver, morar body kahtY inheritance
liver hígado figado body nyymY inheritance
long largo comprido, longo quality pa7a-, pa7atY inheritance
louse piollo, piojo piolho fauna pusI7a “louse” inheritance
lung pulmón pulmão body soomo inheritance
man/male hombre homem human tenahpy7 loan direction unknown
meat/flesh carne carne fauna tuhkU “body, flesh” inheritance
moon luna lua environment mya inheritance
mother madre, mamá mãe kinship pia inheritance
mouth boca boca body type “mouth, lips” inheritance
name nombre nome human nihakyry inheritance
nape base del cuello, nuca nuca body missing
near/close cerca de perto quality miitUtsi inheritance
neck cuello pescoço body toyo, tooyO, toyopY unique
new nuevo novo quality yky loan direction unknown
night noche noite time tukaanI inheritance
no/not no não grammar ke- inheritance
nose nariz nariz body muubI inheritance
old viejo velho quality tsukuhpy7 “old object” inheritance
one uno um number symy inheritance
open/uncover abrir abrir other matuhwary, tohtywary unique
other otro outro grammar ata- inheritance
pain/painful/sick dolor, doloroso, enfermo dor, doloroso, doente body ho7yopiY, ho7yopI unique
person/human being persona pessoa human nymy inheritance
pound/beat machacar, golpear bater impact naraajaakypY, tyhraniity unique
rain lluvia chuva environment ymaary, ymapy inheritance
red rojo vermelho colour ekapI inheritance
right/right hand derecha direita location/body missing; probably “good” missing
road/path camino caminho manufacture pu7E inheritance
root raíz raiz flora tyrana inheritance
rotten podrido podre quality papYsipY inheritance
sand arena areia environment pasi waapI inheritance
say decir dizer mental ty7awe inheritance Charney 1993
scratch rascar rasgar impact tsakwo7nery “scratch an itch” unique
see ver ver mental punity inheritance
sharp afilado, filudo, filoso afiado quality kymapy “sharp edge” inheritance
shoot tirar, disparar, balear atirar impact tsatUkary “to shoot bullet or arrow” inheritance
short corto curto quality pa7Ityhtsi7, pa7itsi7wynyry unique
shoulder hombro ombro body tso7apY inheritance
shy/ashamed tímido, vergonzoso timido, com vergonha mental nasu7aity “ashamed” inheritance
sit sentar(se) sentar state kahtY inheritance
skin piel pele body hynypo7a7; mapo/7a7 “human skin” inheritance
sky cielo céu environment tomoba7atY, tomoobI unique
sleep dormir dormir body yhpyity inheritance
small pequeño pequeno quality tytaaty inheritance
smoke humo fumaça environment kwipY inheritance
sniff/smell olfatear, oler cheirar body ykwihkaty, ykwIsy7ninity loan into protolanguage
spit escupir cuspir body tusity loan into protolanguage
split partir, dividir rachar, dividir, partir impact tabakoity inheritance
squeeze estrujar, exprimir espremer impact kwabary, ma7okwery unique
stab/pierce apuñalar, acuchillar apunhalar impact tonary inheritance
stand estar de pié ficar em pé state wyny7ity inheritance
star estrella estrela environment tatsinuupI inheritance
steal robar roubar other tyryhkary inheritance
stick/wood palo pau, vara flora huupI inheritance
stone piedra pedra environment tyypI inheritance
suck chupar chupar body mubI tsoo7nitY loan
sweat sudar suor, suar body takUsito7ity, takwysipy inheritance
swell hincharse inchar body paro7ikity “swell” inheritance
swim nadar nadar motion pahabity inheritance
tail cola, rabo rabo body kwasI inheritance
that ese/esa esse grammar ma- inheritance
3pl ellos/ellas eles/elas grammar ma- + plural inheritance
thick grueso, gordo, espeso grosso quality pohotatY unknown
thin delgado fino quality tahi inheritance
think pensar pensar mental suatyty inheritance
this este/esta este grammar isy, ity (ii-, o- inheritance
2sg xx xx grammar yny inheritance
three tres tres number pahitY inheritance
throat garganta garganta body kuitsI inheritance
throw tirar, lanzar atirar, jogar impact wihiry inheritance
thunder truenos trovão environment tomojakety inheritance
tie up/fasten atar, amarrar amarrar impact nyytsYkynarY “tied up” unique
tongue lengua lingua body eekO inheritance
tooth diente dente body taamA inheritance
turn girar, volter, torcer virar other koonity inheritance
two dos dois number waha-, wahatI inheritance
vomit vomitar vomitar body oo7ity inheritance
walk caminar, andar andar motion nahnymiity “walk around” (root -mi7ary) inheritance
water agua agua environment paa, pai inheritance
1pl.excl nosotros (exclusivo) nós (exclusivo) grammar nykwY (dyal), nyny (plural) inheritance
1pl.incl nosotros (inclusivo) nós (inclusivo) grammar tahY, takwY (du), tany (pl) inheritance
wet mojado molhado quality pa7Isokety, patso7itY inheritance
what? que, qué que grammar hina, hini inheritance
when? cuando quando grammar hipe inheritance
where? donde onde grammar hakaapu, hakuse7, hakY inheritance
white blanco branco colour tosa-, tosapI inheritance
who? quien, quién quem grammar hakary inheritance
wife esposa esposa kinship kwyhy7 inheritance
wind viento vento environment nyena, nyetY inheritance
wing ala asa body kasA inheritance
woman/female mujer mulher human hybi “middle-aged”, hybi tsiitsi7 “elderly” inheritance
work trabajar trabalhar other tyry7aipy7, tyry7aity inheritance
yawn bostezar bocejar body yhtamaky7aty unknown
yellow amarillo amarelo colour oha-, ohapI inheritance
2pl ustedes vocês grammar yny (sg), myhy, mykwy (dl), myny (pl) inheritance


Flora Fauna Vocabulary (130)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Linnean Name Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Etymology Notes Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Range of Term Word Structure Word Structure Notes Classifier Classifier Notes Hypernym Source Association with Social Categories Ritual/Mythologically Significant Ritual Notes Food Source Food Notes Medicinal Medicinal Notes How Collected Who Collects How Prepared Psychotropic Psychotropic Notes Traded Trade Notes Distribution Habitat Dangerous Ethnobiology Notes Species Notes General Notes
abalone flora-fauna Haliotis spp. missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 1 no
ant (generic) hormiga formiga flora-fauna Formicidae anikuura?; Charney 41 a/niku/ta ant inheritance *anɨN Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 44 (2008:44) same underived etymologically, ant-maker.of.caches Robinson & Armagost 1990:164 0 0 2 0 0 no
antelope flora-fauna Antilocapra americana cuajaré kwahaten ram (carnero) unique also in W. Shoshone, no etymology in Stubbs; note Mojave ɂaqwaq karawii, “antelope, story word”??? same underived Rejon 1995:40 2 1 0 0 0 no
badger flora-fauna Taxidea taxus huuna? groundhog, woodchuck inheritance *huLa Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 132 (2008:59) same underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:161 2 1 0 0 0 yes
bald eagle flora-fauna Haliaeetus leucocephalus missing missing missing 1 2 0 0 1 no
band-tail pigeon flora-fauna Patagioenas fasciata ku?e wóo; dove, pigeon; unique broader (includes pigeons and doves) finite clause? on.top moans (as per R&A, but they give only woo?etɨ “howl” Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 0 1 0 0 0 no
bat murciélago morcego flora-fauna Chiroptera spp hɨnɨbi pokaa? bat inheritance *ho'napi Numic Stubbs 126 (2008;58), Western & Central Numic; what is pokaa? narrower (a kind of bat) phrase bat X Robinson & Armagost 1990:161 0 1 0 0 0 no
beaver flora-fauna Castor pamouetz beaver inheritance *pa?wVN Numic Stubbs 156 (2008:61). This Rejon form is very interesting because it has been re-etymologized in modern Comanche as pa' - wyhtyma “water-blocks.off” (dam builder) same other complex has -tsi ABS; pa may be “water” Rejon 1995:19 2 1 0 0 0 no
beetle flora-fauna Coleoptera spp tuɨnɨɨ? Junebug, black beetle unique narrower (stinkbug) phrase tu-ɨnɨɨ? black-bug Robinson & Armagost 1990:164 2 0 0 0 0 no
big round tule flora-fauna Schoenoplectus acutus pamoe tule y tambien quiote semantic shift comes from the verb for “smoke tobacco” and refers to use of the reeds to make cigarettes broader (also refers to agave stalk, probably on functional grounds finite clause? “it.smokes” (I think) Rejon 1995:40 2 1 2 0 0 no
big skunk flora-fauna Mephitis mephitis pohni?atsi skunk inheritance *po(C)ni Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 1983 (2008:275) same other complex has -tsi ABS Robinson & Armagost 1990:161 2 2 0 0 0 no
big wolf (gray wolf) flora-fauna Canis lupus pia tseena wolf unique same phrase big coyote Robinson & Armagost 1990:162 1 2 0 0 0 yes
bighorn sheep flora-fauna Ovis canadensis missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
bird pajaro, ave passaro flora-fauna huutsúu bird (general) inheritance *hutti/huttu Numic Stubbs 205c (2008:69) same underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:161 0 0 0 0 0 no
black ant flora-fauna Camponotus pennsylvanicus/Lasius niger tɨe anikuura? sugar ant unique narrower (small black kitchen ants are probably meant) phrase small ant Robinson & Armagost 1990:164 2 0 0 0 0 no
black bear flora-fauna Ursus americanus wasápe bear unique Central Numic from “kill several”; derivation means “game” same other complex has -pɨ ABS Robinson & Armagost 1990:162 1 2 0 0 0 yes
black-tail Jackrabbit flora-fauna Lepus californicus piarabo liebre, hare inheritance *taput/C Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 1707 (2008:242) same phrase big-rabbit Rejon 1995:31 2 1 0 0 0 no
blackberry flora-fauna Rubus ursinus panatsayaa? blackberry bush, raspberry bush unique broader (diverse berries) underived obviously complex but no help in R&A Robinson & Armagost 1990:166 2 1 2 0 0 no
blue grouse flora-fauna Dendrogapus? kokaa? guinea fowl semantic shift *kaka “quail, grouse” Numic Stubbs 1702a (2008:241, probably shouldn't be combined with quail broader (includes domestic guinea fowl -- but NOT prairie chicken) underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 0 1 0 0 0 no
bobcat, lynx flora-fauna Lynx rufus tɨe tɨmakupa? wildcat, bobcat unique same phrase small cougar Robinson & Armagost 1990:161, 162 1 2 0 0 0 no
butterfly, moth mariposa borboleta flora-fauna Lepidoptera ueyahcoró butterfly unique same underived probably complex but impossible to recover etymology or analysis Rejon 1995:21 2 0 0 0 0 no
California condor flora-fauna Gymnogyps californianus missing missing missing 1 2 0 0 1 no
California jay flora-fauna Aphelocoma californica? ebihuutsuu? bluejay, bluebird unique this has *huttu, but is totally unlike other Shoshone, probably a calque broader (vague as to even genus! -- Aphelocoma? Cyanocitta? Sialia? phrase blue-bird Robinson & Armagost 1990:162 2 1 0 0 0 no
California woodpecker flora-fauna Melanerpes formicivorus? pitusɨ nu?ye?; wobi tohtaraki woodpecker unique Central Numic These are identical to Crum & Dayley's Duckwater forms: putumpittsi; wopin tottontaki, actualy “Shoshone” only as I can't find similar forms in T. Shoshone broader (any woodpeckers, source is vague) phrase wopin tottontaki means wood pecker -- I would say calque except Duckwater has identical formj. pitusi? is “backwards” -- nu?ye? crawls??? Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 2 1 0 0 1 no
chia flora-fauna Salvia columbariae missing missing missing 1 1 1 0 0 no
chipmunk flora-fauna Tamias spp. missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
cliff swallow flora-fauna Petrochelidon pyrrhonota pasocopi golondrina inheritance *pasoko- Northern Uto-Aztecan new set for “swallow”; this is identical to the W. Shoshone form pasokompii from Duckwater broader (any swallow, as per Rejon's “golondrina”) other complex has -pi ABS Rejon 1995:46 2 1 0 0 0 no
coot flora-fauna Fulica americana missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
cottontail rabbit flora-fauna Sylvilagus audobonii tabú?kia? rabbit inheritance *taput/C Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 1707 (2008:242) same other complex I don't know wht the -kia? thing is 2 1 0 0 0 no
cottonwood flora-fauna Populus spp. soho obi huupi cottonwood tree inheritance *sohopin Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 542a (2008:111), only Numic and Hopi same phrase cottonwood tree Robinson & Armagost 1990:165 2 0 2 0 0 no
coyote flora-fauna Canis latrans tseena gray fox, coyote unique broader (more like “wild canid”) underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:161 1 2 0 0 0 no
crow flora-fauna Corvus brachyrhynchos tuwikaa? raven, crow, blackbird inheritance *kak Uto-Aztecan Probably not a calque because it's in Rejon for “crow”; unique increment: Stubbs 584 (2008:117) broader (seems to be any old black bird) phrase tu- “black”??? -kaa is the “crow” cognate Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 2 1 0 0 0 no
datura flora-fauna Datura wrightii missing missing missing 1 1 1 1 0 yes
deer, mule flora-fauna Odocoileus hemionus arɨka? deer inheritance *tɨkɨya Numic Stubbs 625a (2008:121); what is the a- increment? 3Pposs? and why no /ia/? Why k?? same underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:161 2 1 0 0 0 no
digger pine flora-fauna Pinus sabiniana missing missing missing 2 1 2 0 0 no
dog (camp, domestic) perro cachorro flora-fauna Canis familiaris sarii? dog inheritance *sati Numic may be an arealism; Stubbs 674 (2008:126) in N. Paiute, C. Numic, S. Numic, Hopi same underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:162 0 0 0 0 0 no
dogbane flora-fauna Apocynum cannabinum missing missing missing 2 1 2 0 0 no
dove paloma pomba flora-fauna Zenaida macrocoura ku?e wóo dove, pigeon unique broader (includes pigeons and doves) finite clause? on.top moans (as per R&A, but they give only woo?etɨ “howl” Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 2 1 0 0 0 no
duck pato pato, marreco flora-fauna Anatidae pɨɨyɨ duck inheritance *picV Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 706a (2008:130) same underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 0 1 0 0 0 no
elder flora-fauna Sambucus missing missing missing 2 1 1 0 0 no
elk flora-fauna Cervas elaphus parɨa elk inheritance *tɨkɨya Numic Stubbs 625a (2008;121) with pa- “big” as throughout Numic same phrase big deer at least etymologically, this is the REGULAR reflex from “deer”, “deer itself is odd. Robinson & Armagost 1990:162 2 1 0 0 0 no
fish (generic) pez peixe flora-fauna pekwi fish inheritance *paNkwi Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 865 (2008:148) same underived etymologically phrase water-fish Robinson & Armagost 1990:164 0 1 0 0 0 no
flea pulga pulga flora-fauna Siphonaptera ekapusi?a flea inheritance *pusia Numic Stubbs 1358a (2008:205) same phrase red-flea/louse Robinson & Armagost 1990:164 2 0 0 0 0 no
flicker flora-fauna Colaptes sp. ecahcueré ekakwɨrɨɨɂ Red Hammer unique All Central Numic has the “red” element, but usually with panna -- i don't know what kwɨrɨɨ? us same phrase eka-kwɨrɨɨ? Rejon 1995:51 2 1 0 0 1 no
blowfly/housefly mosca mosca flora-fauna Diptera animui housefly inheritance *muwi/muCi Numic Stubbs 887 (2008;151) same phrase X-fly (ani is a different set in “mosquito”???) Robinson & Armagost 1990:164 0 0 0 0 0 no
foothills yucca flora-fauna Yucca whipplei mumutsi? soapweed, yucca, beargrass; Yucca louisianensis (Rejon lechugilla) inheritance *amu(wV) Uto-Aztecan A specifically Central Numic development, note T. Shoshone muuppüh “Joshua tree”; probably one of the etyma in Stubbs 4 (2008:40), the agave words same other complex has -tsi ABS, may be a diminutive here (it's a smallish plant, the “shin-dagger”) Robinson & Armagost 1990:166 0 1 0 0 0 no
fox flora-fauna Vulpes, Urocyon ekatseena? red fox [Vulpes] unique same phrase red-wild.canid Robinson & Armagost 1990:161 2 2 0 0 0 no
frog (generic) flora-fauna pohpi kwáai; Rejon pasauiyió 29 (pasawii?o?) frog unique same finite clause? jumping goes (R&A) Robinson & Armagost 1990:162 2 2 0 0 0 no
golden eagle flora-fauna Aquila chrysaetos kwihnai eagle inheritance *kwi'na Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 717b (2008;131), Western, Central Numic same underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 1 2 0 0 1 no
gooseberry flora-fauna Ribes spp. pokopi berries, fruits, nuts inheritance *pokoN Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 183 (2008:65) broader (diverse fruits) other complex has -pi ABS Robinson & Armagost 1990:85 2 1 1 0 0 no
gopher snake, bull snake flora-fauna Pituophis catenifer missing missing missing 2 2 0 0 0 no
grass hierba, pasto capim, grama flora-fauna (NA) sonipɨ grass inheritance *sonV Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 1029 (2008:166) same other complex has -pɨ ABS Robinson & Armagost 1990:153 0 0 0 0 0 no
grasshopper flora-fauna Caelifera ahtakii grasshopper (small sp.) inheritance *attaNkaC Numic Stubbs 1036 (2008:167) narrower (a kind of grasshopper) underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:164 2 1 0 0 0 no
gray ground squirrel flora-fauna Sphermophilus sp. ewa kɨɨpi? ground squirrel inheritance *iNkwa Numic Stubbs 2099 (2008:289) same finite clause? ground.squirrel bite-er?? Robinson & Armagost 1990:161 2 1 0 0 0 no
gray tree squirrel flora-fauna Sciurus spp. wokoohwi tree squirrel unique Contains woko “pine tree” same other complex pine.tree - animal.classifier??? (Robinson & Armagost say “literally, turns fast”, which is folk etymology -- how they could have an entry for “tree squirrel” directly under “pine tree” and come up with that is a great mystery, it's unsupported by any mat Robinson & Armagost 1990:162 2 1 0 0 0 no
great horned owl flora-fauna Bubo virginianus mupitz owl inheritance *muhuN Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 1542 (2008:227), the expected VERY stable form for Bubo virginianus and given that there is at least one other word for “owl” I assume in “range” that it is NOT generic same other complex has -pitsi or -pɨtsi abs (source does not distinguish) Rejon 1995:38 1 2 2 0 1 no
grizzly bear flora-fauna Ursus arctos horribilis tosa wɨra? white bear inheritance Numic see N.P. wɨdaɂa ; Grizzly also “white bear” in Shoshone unknown Rejon 1995:19 1 2 0 0 0 yes
horned toad flora-fauna Phrynosomatidae kuhtsu tɨbini? toad, horned toad unique same finite clause? buffalo questions (??) Robinson & Armagost 1990:161 2 2 2 0 0 no
horse caballo cavalho flora-fauna Equus caballus puukU horse semantic shift *puNku/pukku Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 38 (2008:43) same underived Rejon 1995:32 0 0 0 0 0 no
hummingbird colibrí, picaflor (Peru) beija-flor flora-fauna Trochilidae wɨ?kɨ?buu?; Rejon temumumquit 32 hummingbird unique Nothing comparable for either form. Rejon looks vaguely like Numic *muttanaC -- maybe with metathesis??? same phrase R&A say wɨ- “flutter”, ku?buu “say boo”. Maybe. Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 0 0 0 0 0 no
tobacco tabaco tabaco flora-fauna Nicotiana spp. pahmu tobacco loan Yokuts loan is into Proto-central Numic, of course WW %pa7mo same underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:166 1 1 1 1 0 yes
insect (generic) insecto insecto flora-fauna generic ɨnɨ? bug, insect, creature semantic shift *ɨnɨC Numic Stubbs 2066 (2008:285), usually “spirit, ghost”; this elevates to Numic and changes meaning (unless it's a loan from Ute) broader (“critter” -- extent not clear) underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:164 0 0 2 0 0 variable
junco flora-fauna Junco sppp missing missing missing 0 1 0 0 0 no
juniper flora-fauna Juniperus californica ekawaapi juniper inheritance *wa'aC Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 414 (2008:94), interestingly, it's not Central Numic *sama, suggesting that's a recent innovation same phrase red-juniper-ABS Robinson & Armagost 1990:165 2 1 1 0 0 no
louse flora-fauna order Phtiraptera pusi?a head louse inheritance *pusia Numic Stubbs 1358a (2008:205) narrower (head louse only according to R&A) underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:164 2 0 0 0 0 no
mallard flora-fauna Anas platyrhynchos missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
manzanita flora-fauna Arctostaphylos spp. missing missing missing 2 1 1 0 0 no
milkweed, broad leaf flora-fauna Asclepias eriocarpa kumiitsanatsu milkweed unique same underived obviously complex but no help in R&A; may include sana- “gum” ?? But why the initial ts- then?? Robinson & Armagost 1990:166 2 1 1 0 0 no
milkweed, narrow leaf flora-fauna Asclepias fascicularis missing missing missing 0 1 1 0 0 no
mission tule flora-fauna Juncus missing missing missing 2 1 2 0 0 no
mockingbird flora-fauna Mimus polyglottos soo yake? mocking bird, locust [Cicada JHH?] unique broader (mockingbirds and cicadas????) finite clause? always chirps (I'm not sure verb is fully formed) Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 2 1 0 0 0 no
mosquito mosquito, zancudo mosquito, carapana flora-fauna Anopheles spp, Isoptera mutsikwù?aa? Mosquito unique same finite clause? pointed.thing-awkwardly.flaps.wings (say R&A but in fact not analyzable from their dictionary!) Robinson & Armagost 1990:164 0 0 0 0 0 no
moth mariposa nocturna, polilla mariposa flora-fauna Heterocera tɨpi simuhta? moth (long sp.) unique same finite clause? rock sucks.through.nose Robinson & Armagost 1990:164 2 0 0 0 0 no
mountain lion flora-fauna Puma concolor tɨmahkupa? panther, mountain lion unique same finite clause? tɨmah-kupa? clench-strangle (according to R&A Robinson & Armagost 1990:162 1 2 0 0 0 yes
mountain quail flora-fauna Oreortyx pictus kuyúutsi quail inheritance *kuyu(...) Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2358 (2008;316), “turkey”, perhaps a loan into Numic from Hopi??? But pretty good corresp. broader (any old quail) other complex has -tsi, probably in this case DIM from kuyu?ni “turkey” Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 2 1 0 0 0 no
mussel flora-fauna Mytilus spp. missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 1 no
olivella (olive snail) flora-fauna Callianax biplicata poná caracol inheritance *po'owa Stubbs 1907 (2008:267), same as Shoshone po'an broader (perhaps any snaill) underived Rejon 1995:44 2 2 0 0 1 no
pinyon jay flora-fauna Cyanocitta stelleri? missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
pinyon pine flora-fauna Pinus monophylla missing missing missing 2 1 2 0 1 no
pismo clam flora-fauna Tivella stultorum wa?rokoo?, wa?koo? shell of shellfish (clam, oyster, any shell fish) inheritance *ko... Uto-Aztecan probably Stubbs 1906 (2008:267) or perhaps 1905 (*koyo) --- with wa- from “water” -- a loan from somewhere??? broader (any shell) underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:219 2 1 0 0 1 no
pocket gopher flora-fauna Thomomys missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
poison oak flora-fauna Toxicodendron diversilobum puhi ta?ara? poison ivy unique same phrase leaf poison Robinson & Armagost 1990:161 2 2 2 0 0 yes
rattlesnake flora-fauna Crotalus spp. wɨhtsabeyakatɨ rattle snake unique same finite clause? wɨhtsabeya-katɨ rattle- sits Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 1 2 0 0 0 yes
red ant flora-fauna Solenopsis spp ekaɨnɨɨ red ant; large red ant unique narrower (a kind of red ant) phrase eka-ɨnɨɨ red-bug Robinson & Armagost 1990:164; 1 0 1 0 0 no
red-shouldered blackbird flora-fauna Agelaius phoeniceus tuwikaa? raven, crow, blackbird semantic shift *kak Uto-Aztecan Probably not a calque because it's in Rejon for “crow”; unique increment: Stubbs 584 (2008:117) broader (seems to be any old black bird) phrase tu- “black”??? -kaa is the “crow” cognate Robinson & Armagost 1990:183 2 1 0 0 0 no
red-tailed hawk flora-fauna Buteo jamaicensis tosa nakaai hawk inheritance *naka'i Numic Stubbs 724 (2008:132) same phrase white hawk.sp (R&A say “white hears”, utter nonsense Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 2 2 0 0 0 no
roadrunner flora-fauna Geococcyx californianus ebikuyuutsi; rejon 40 ebikuyonit chaparral cock, roadrunner inheritance *kuyu(...) Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2358 (2008;316), “turkey”, perhaps a loan into Numic from Hopi??? But pretty good corresp. same phrase blue quail (modern form) or blue turkey (Rejon form) -- “quail” is just “turkey-DIM” Robinson & Armagost 1990:162 2 1 0 0 0 no
ruddy duck flora-fauna Oxyura jamaicensis missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
sage herb flora-fauna Artemisia californica missing missing missing 2 2 1 0 0 no
salmon/steelhead flora-fauna Oncorhynchus mykiss missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
scaly lizard flora-fauna Pygopus lepidopodus? missing missing missing 2 2 0 0 0 no
small bird flora-fauna tɨe huutsuu small bird unique same phrase small bird (perhaps a calque on elicitation) Rejon 1995:? 2 1 0 0 0 no
small brown lizard flora-fauna paboko'ai timber lizard inheritance *poko Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 1338 (2008:203), distribution looks areal: W. and C. Numic, Tub. same phrase big-lizard Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 2 2 0 0 0 no
snake (generic) culebra, serpiente cobra flora-fauna kwasinaboo? snake (general) unique same finite clause? kwasi-naboo? tail-is.striped/spotted/patterned Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 0 1 0 0 0 no
soaproot flora-fauna Chlorogalum missing missing missing 2 1 1 0 0 no
sour berry flora-fauna Rhus trilobata pahmo namahya? sumac (tobacco powder, they gloss tobacco mixer) unique This refers to the custom of making ash of these berries and mixing them with tobacco for smoking same phrase tobacco-powder Robinson & Armagost 1990:223 2 1 1 0 0 no
sparrow hawk flora-fauna Falco huhmara?, huumara? falcon unique perhaps a loan from somewhere? same underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:162 2 2 0 0 0 no
spider araña aranha flora-fauna Arachnida, Araneae tatétz araña unique same other complex tarantula is tapuehretz pɨhɨ re?tsI 46; probably has -tsi ABS Rejon 1995:44 0 0 2 0 0 variable
spotted skunk flora-fauna Spilogale gracilis nabohcutz spotted skunk (naboo unique same phrase spotted - kɨ-tsi??? Rejon 1995:43 2 2 0 0 0 no
toad sapo sapo flora-fauna Bufonidae pasanao toad unique same underived has “water” or “big”, perhaps had sawa “green” -- can't tell Rejon 1995:48 2 2 0 0 0 no
tree árbol arvore flora-fauna (NA) huupi tree (general) inheritance *huCV Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 63 (2008:47) same other complex has -pi ABS Robinson & Armagost 1990:165 0 0 2 0 0 no
tree yucca flora-fauna Yucca schidegera missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
turkey buzzard flora-fauna Cathartes aura ekabapi red-headed buzzard unique “red” and “head” both Proto-Numic reflexes same phrase eka- “red”, pa-pi “head” Robinson & Armagost 1990:162 2 2 0 0 0 no
turtle (generic) flora-fauna Testudines wakarée; wakate?ee Charney 25 turtle inheritance *ayaC Uto-Aztecan the -ee is from ay! Stubbs 2539 (2008:316) The wakata part looks like the UA “frog” word Stubbs 940 WW %wakat same underived etymologicall a phrase, frog-turtle Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 2 2 0 0 1 no
valley live oak flora-fauna Quercus agrifolia pa?sa ponii huupi oak unique same phrase pa?sa ponii “acorn”, huupi “tree Robinson & Armagost 1990:165 2 1 2 0 1 no
valley oak flora-fauna Quercus lobata tuhuupi, tuhu huupi blackjack oak, barren oak, Q. marilandica unique same phrase black tree Robinson & Armagost 1990:124 2 1 acorns eaten 2 leaves used in cigarettes 0 1 no
valley quail flora-fauna Callipepla californica tɨe kuyúutsi partridge, quail (small) inheritance *kuyu(...) Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2358 (2008;316), “turkey”, perhaps a loan into Numic from Hopi??? But pretty good corresp. broader (includes partridge??) phrase small quail Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 2 1 0 0 0 no
Washington clam flora-fauna Saxidomus nuttalli missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 1 no
Western Canada goose flora-fauna Branta canadensis nɨkɨta goose inheritance *nakɨ Numic Stubbs 711 (2008;130) only W. and Central Numic broader (any wild goose) underived Robinson & Armagost 1990:163 0 1 0 0 0 no
whale flora-fauna Eschrichtius robustus missing missing missing 2 1 2 0 1 no
white pelican flora-fauna Pelicanus erythrorhynchos missing missing missing 0 2 0 0 0 no
wild grapevine flora-fauna Vitis californica natsamukwe? wild grape , Vitis sp. unique same underived clearly complex but no help on analysis from R&A Robinson & Armagost 1990:166 2 1 2 0 0 no
wild oats flora-fauna Avena (introduction) soni narúa oats unique includes Stubbs 1029 broader (probably includes domestic oats) finite clause? grass - ??? (verb isn't in dict; Narua was name of Cynthia Parker Robinson & Armagost 1990:167 2 1 2 0 0 no
wild rose flora-fauna Rosa californica missing missing missing 0 1 2 0 0 no
wild sunflower flora-fauna Helianthus (and other genera) ohayaa? sunflower, Helianthus sp. (any yellow flower) unique same underived etymologically a phrase, oha- “yellow” Robinson & Armagost 1990:166 0 1 0 0 0 no
willow flora-fauna Salix spp. sɨhɨɨbi willow inheritance **sɨhɨ Numic Stubbs 2486 (2008:332); is this related to the *sɨhɨ “Rhus trilobata” words? Both used for basketry withes. narrower (a species of willow, surely) other complex has -pi ABS Robinson & Armagost 1990:165 2 2 1 0 0 no
wood rat, round-tail flora-fauna Neotoma spp. kaa rat inheritance *kawa Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 1423 (2008:213) same underived Rejon 1995:40 2 1 0 0 0 no
worm, hairy caterpillar flora-fauna Arctiidae (many species) missing missing missing 2 2 0 0 0 no
worm, smooth caterpillar flora-fauna Trichoplusia ni (?) cabbage looper uoabi gusano inheritance *wo'a Numic Stubbs 2526 (2008:338) same other complex has -pi ABS Rejon 1995:51 2 2 0 0 0 no
yellow jacket flora-fauna Vespula spp., Dolichovespula spp. missing missing missing 2 0 0 0 0 no
yellowbird flora-fauna Dendroica petechia missing missing missing 0 1 0 0 0 no
yerba santa flora-fauna Eriodictyon californicum missing missing missing 2 1 1 0 0 no
ant (generic) hormiga formiga flora-fauna anIkuura7 inheritance
bird pajaro, ave passaro flora-fauna huutsu/u inheritance
blowfly/housefly mosca mosca flora-fauna anImuI inheritance
dog (camp, domestic) perro cachorro flora-fauna sarii7 inheritance
grass hierba, pasto capim, grama flora-fauna soni, sonipY inheritance
deer venado veado, cariacu flora-fauna aryka inheritance
snake (generic) culebra, serpiente cobra flora-fauna kwasinaboo7 unique
spider araña aranha flora-fauna pyhy re7tsI unique


Cultural Vocabulary (115)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes Word Structure Word Structure Notes General Notes Source
acorn mush food missing missing
ball game food missing missing
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven tierra do los muertos terra dos mortos culture-mythology missing missing
feather headband dress pia tso7nika7 headdress, war bonnet (big hat) unique a very different item from the California dance headbands phrase Robinson & Armagost 1990
arrow flecha flecha subsistence tool paakA, paka arrow inheritance *pakaN- Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 1778; in meaning "arrow" only in Numic simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
arrow straightener other missing missing
bait for fishing cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru) isca subsistence tool missing missing
school escuela escola acculturation missing missing
stone bowl culture-material missing missing
basket (general) canasta, canasto, cesta cesto culture-material aawo cup, vessel, container; arch. Basket inheritance *akwo Numic Stubbs 2011 1717 N simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
basket, small canasta, canasto, cesta cesto pequeno, tampado culture-material missing missing
basketry hat culture-material missing missing
bead abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar miçanga culture-material tsoomY bead inheritance *coiN Numic Also in Southern Numic; Stubbs 1513 simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
ochre culture-mythology missing missing
bow arco arco subsistence tool eetY bow for shooting arrows inheritance *aCta Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 275 simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
canoe canoa canoa transport sahKi canoe inheritance *saCki Numic See N. Paiute 'tule boat, raft' simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
carrying net subsistence tool missing missing
bottle botella garrafa acculturation otY aawO bottle semantic shift *akwo Numic Stubbs 2011 1717 phrase brown container Robinson & Armagost 1990
paper papel papel acculturation tyboopY letter, paper unique other complex writing-ABS Robinson & Armagost 1990
chief/leader jefe, cacique chefe culture-mythology paraiboo7 chief, officer, agent, chief wife among multiple wives, stepmother unique phrase paraibo 'peace chief' pa-taibo big-X (taibo='white man'??) Robinson & Armagost 1990
club garrote, cachiporra clava, porrete subsistence tool wahta pole, club unique simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
loincloth taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla tanga, tapa-sexo dress tsa7nika undersear, G-string, loincloth, jock strap unique simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
cook food food kwasyty cook inheritance *kwasi/aC Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 421 simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
corpse food tyjaipY, tyjai7 corpse, dead body inheritance *ja7ay Numic Stubbs 2011 656 simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
dance (generic) culture-mythology nyhkary dance inheritance *nykkaC Numic Stubbs 2011 633 simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure dios(es), deidad divinidade, figura mítica culture-mythology Atsabi7 Creator, holy spirit (name of deity) unique other complex Robinson & Armagost 1990
digging stick subsistence tool missing missing
dipper subsistence tool missing missing
dream sueño, soñar sonho, sonhar culture-mythology nabUsi7aipY dream (N) unknown Central Numic only, Stubbs 718 derived, other complex Robinson & Armagost 1990
drone pipe culture-mythology missing missing
drum tambor tambor culture-mythology missing missing
chicken gallina galinha acculturation kokorá7a chicken loan unknown simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
earring other nakI tsa7nika7 earring unique phrase ear entered.into Robinson & Armagost 1990
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio espirito culture-mythology Tuhkwasi taiboo7 Satan, devil unique phrase Robinson & Armagost 1990
fire drill subsistence tool missing missing
fire-tender culture-mythology momysaka fire tender in peyote meeting unique compound Robinson & Armagost 1990
fireplace hogar lareira other kutYhorapY, kutoorapY fireplace, hearth, fire hole unique phrase fire-dig-abs Robinson & Armagost 1990
firewood leña lenha other kunaA firewood inheritance *kunnaC Numic Stubbs 2011 884 simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
fish (with fish-poison) pescar con barbasco, barbasquear pescar com timbó; tinguijar food missing missing
fish (with line) anzuelear, pescar con linea pescar (com linha) food hyary7 to trap, fish inheritance *hya Numic Stubbs simplex R
fish poison barbasco, matapez (Colombia) timbó subsistence tool missing missing
fishing line cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze linha de pesca subsistence tool missing missing
fish hook subsistence tool hya7, hya7eety fishhook inheritance *hya Numic simplex
acorn bread food missing missing
wheat food tohtia masya7 wheat unique phrase R
flute flauta, quena (Peru) flauta culture-mythology missing missing
gambling sticks other missing missing
game animal caza, animal de caza caça, animal de caça food tyky wasy7 game (animals killed in the hunt), pl. wasypy unknown wasy- 'hunt' Central Numic only phrase see 'hunt' in T. Shoshone; tyky is 'food' R
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio espirito culture-mythology pye tyjaii7 ghost, evil spirit inheritance *ja7ay Numic Stubbs 2011 656; has the *ty- element too like towish, etc. phrase R
glue subsistence tool missing missing
grave tumba, sepultura, sepulcro sepultura, sepulcro, cova culture-mythology nypykapy grave inheritance *ku7way Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 322 metathesis compound R
alcohol food po7sa baa whiskey unique phrase crazy water R
Datura wrightii narcotics missing missing
shaman, healer chamán, brujo xaman, pajé, feiticeiro culture-mythology puha7aity shaman inheritance *puha Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 1160a derived, other complex R
honey miel mel food yny bihnaa honey inheritance *pisaC Uto-Aztean phrase bug sugar R
house other kahni house, teepee, room, home inheritance *kaNLi Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 1213 simplex R
hunt cazar caçar food tyhoity hunt game inheritance *tyho Numic Stubbs 2011 1235 simplex R
initiate boy culture-mythology missing missing
initiate girl culture-mythology missing missing
knife cuchillo faca culture-material nahuu7, nahhoo7 knife, drawing knife unique compound R
mat culture-material missing missing
mortar mortero pilão subsistence tool huu aawo, huaawo, huakwo mortar, wooden vessel (arch. Bedrock mortar?) inheritance *akwo Numic Stubbs 2011 1717 N compounded with 'wood' word phrase R
necklace other tsomo korohko bead necklace inheritance *koLoka Uto-Aztecan Central Numic only, from either *koLoka or *kuta phrase R
needle/awl subsistence tool wuujY awl, icepick, any sharp-pointed implement for punching holes thru which sinews pass inheritance *wicaC Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 2296 simplex R
paddle/oar remo remo transport panatsitoo7 oar, canoe paddle unique compound water stick R
pestle pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor mão de pilão subsistence tool tsohkwe7 pestle (with hole in center) unique like BSVS, has 'stone, head' IP but not the same; also tyraju7ne7 (126) pestle of hardened wood knot for pounding meat or corn simplex
pinole food koo7 mush, cornmeal mush unique simplex R
pipe for tobacco pipa cachimbo other to7I pipe for smoking loan *to7i Numic Sierra Miwok WW %to7i s; see SSM to7is-:a- 'pipe' and fix, what is loan direction?ee W. Mono to7isi simplex R
pitch food sanahkena, sanahpI sap of tree or plant inheritance *salaC Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 1634 other complex R
pot olla, pote panela, vasilha subsistence tool aawo cup, vessel, container; arch. Basket inheritance *akwo Numic Stubbs 2011 1717 simplex Robinson & Armagost 1990
quiver subsistence tool missing missing
rattle matraca, maraca marico, chocalho culture-mythology missing missing
red paint culture-mythology missing missing
salt sal sal food onaabI salt inheritance *omCa Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 1865 other complex R
seed beater subsistence tool missing missing
clothing ropa roupa culture-mythology namahku clothes (any wearing apparel), household goods, belongings inheritance *nammakku Numic See also T. sho namokku(n) 'money', Comanche 'clothes'; W. Mono naawakU 'string of shell money', N. Paiute namakko 'old kind of beads; also hoi-yah, ahts-ă-kan-nah red & blue beads, probably Hudson Bay Merriam 45:303 simplex R
sinew-backed bow subsistence tool missing missing
skirt falda, saya, fustan, pollera saia culture-material missing missing
snare subsistence tool hyary7 trap (general term for all traps) inheritance *hy7aC Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 2406 simplex R
song (generic) canción, canto canção culture-mythology hubija7 song, hymn inheritance *hupiya Numic Stubbs 2011 1985 simplex literally, 'sounds mournful, like crying' R
spear lanza lança subsistence tool tahkana7 spear inheritance *takka Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 66 simplex R
stirring stick food missing missing
rope/string mecate, cuerda, soga corda culture tyyhtama7 string, yarn, ties unknown Central Numic only word for 'tie'; Stubbs 2011 2335 compound wyhtama7 to bale, bundle R
bag, sack culture-material narYsO bag, sack inheritance *tyso Numic Stubbs 2011 113 compound R
string of shell money other missing missing
sugarcane/sugar azúcar, caña de azúcar açucar (de cana) acculturation pihnáa7 sugar, sweets semantic shift *pisa(L) Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 2259 simplex R
sweathouse other nasukoo7i kahni sweat house unique quite similar to S. Paiute form but not the same verb phrase R
tell history culture-mythology narymu7ikaty tell, relate inheritance *ti(N)wa Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 1489 compound narymu7ipY story, tale R
cremate culture-mythology kuhkupary kill with heat, cremate, burn to death accidentally (sg ob) unique kuhtokwe pl obj compound fire-? R
tobacco (native) narcotics pahmu tobacco loan Yokuts WW %pa7mo into Proto-Central Numic simplex R
tule boat transport missing missing
white paint culture-mythology missing missing
winnowing basket culture-material missing missing
wood tray subsistence tool missing missing
shoes zapatos sapatos dress napy shoe, footprint, trail inheritance *naNpa Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 938a simplex R
medicine narcotics natyYsu7u medicine inheritance *natysuC Numic can't find in Stubbs compound R
cradleboard culture-material koono, kohno cradle, box, container, resting place inheritance *kono Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 142 simplex R
policeman polícia policía acculturation tyyhtamuh raibo7 policeman, sheriff unique phrase whiteman who ties us up R
soldier soldado soldado acculturation ekasahpana7 soldier unique compound red-chested (refers to Spanish uniform w/ red sash) R
corn food haniibI corn, maize, ear of corn inheritance *hani Northern Uto-Aztecan Hill 2003 other complex R
beans food pihuura(7) bean loan Spanish WW %frijol simplex R
cat gato gato acculturation wa7oo7, wa7o7a cat unique loan from where??? simplex R
gun arma, escopeta espingarda, fusil acculturation tawo7i7 gun (any type), pistol, rifle unique simplex R
hat sombero chapéu dress tso7nika hat unique compound pl. tso7wekwa7 R
clapper acculturation missing missing
rope/string mecate, cuerda, soga corda culture wiyaa7 (in pahki wiyaa7 “rawhide rope”) inheritance
thatch/roof crisneja palha, caraná culture-material missing
bottom grinding stone manufacture huaawo “mortar” unknown
digging stick subsistence tool ty7ehkooi7” cane, shepherd's crook unknown
winnow aventar, tirar (sementes) joeirar manufacture po7himary unknown
top grinding stone metate, mano; piedra de moler metate, mano manufacture tyraju7ne7 “pestle” inheritance
boomerang/throwing stick (generic) subsistence tool missing
spearthrower subsistence tool eety “bow” inheritance
spear lanza lança subsistence tool paaka7 semantic shift
house other kahni inheritance


Grammatical Data (226)
Category Grammatical Feature Grammatical Feature: Notes Feature Status Grammatical Notes Source Etymology Notes General Notes Phylogenetic Code
Phonology - Segmental Pre-/post-nasalized stops Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.
Phonology - Segmental Glottalized/ejective consonants Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative] no
Phonology - Segmental Palatalized stops Phonemic contrast
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic vowel length Does the language have long and short vowels?
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels
Phonology - Segmental Complex onsets Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme
Phonology - Segmental No codas *(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]
Phonology - Segmental Word-final coda required Do all syllables end in a consonant?
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive tones Note how many contrastive tones no
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive stress Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?
Phonology - Suprasegmental Vowel harmony
Morphology - General Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb) Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]
Morphology - General Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes Stem change, tone no
Morphology - General Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes) Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word yes
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing There are many more prefixes than suffixes no
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing There are many more suffixes than prefixes yes
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different no
Morphology - General Reduplication: full The full morpheme is reduplicated yes
Morphology - General Reduplication: partial Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated yes
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive NN compounding Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV serialization (without compounding) Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV compounding Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Auxiliary verb(s) There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs
Morphology - Incorporation Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process Verb contains nominal segment
Morphology - Incorporation Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classes/genders Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP no
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Number of noun classes/genders Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders) Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates Masculine, feminine, neuter
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system Animate/inanimate, human/non-human
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification "Repeater" classifiers Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals) Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals no
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'
Nominal Categories - Number Singular number may be marked on the noun Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups
Nominal Categories - Number Plural affix on noun yes
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun no
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by reduplication of noun no
Nominal Categories - Number Plural word/clitic no
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked on human or animate nouns only yes
Nominal Categories - Number Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns no
Nominal Categories - Number Unique associative plural marker e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them' no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Definite or specific articles Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only yes
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Indefinite or non-specific article or marker no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you yes
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound) no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number) Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system 3
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3sg pronouns no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3pl pronouns no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Formal/informal distinction in pronouns Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Reflexive pronouns e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Adpositions mark core NPs Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: number of cases Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun 3
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are no
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: symmetrical All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity) no
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: asymmetrical Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates yes
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: suffix or postpositional clitic yes
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: prefix or prepositional clitic
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: infix or inpositional clitic
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: stem change
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: tone
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: comitative = instrumental Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument' no
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-2 At least some part of the system involves base-2 no
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-5 At least some part of the system involves base-5 no
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-10 At least some part of the system involves base-10 yes
Nominal Categories - Numerals Other base (specify) 4, 20, etc. no
Nominal Categories - Numerals Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5 e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 5 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 10 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Person inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N alienable/inalienable? no
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N alienable/inalienable? no
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent e.g. 'the boy-'s dog' yes
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head e.g. 'the boy his-dog' yes
Nominal Syntax - Possession Possessive classifiers There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of inalienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of alienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of kin terms 'my-father' but *father
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal) 'my-leg' but *leg
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Underived adjectives There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival) There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer) There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song) There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive verbalizing morphology There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective
Nominal Syntax - Other NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently 'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary' no
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated past marker(s) Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. distant vs. recent past no
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. imminent vs. distant future
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated future or non-past marker(s) yes
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: prefix no
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: suffix yes
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut no
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect suppletion no
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood yes
Verbal Categories - Mood Polite imperative morpheme There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)
Verbal Categories - Mood Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses yes
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative) as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: affix on verb Inflectional marking of capacity to do something
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: verbal construction
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: other marking
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: affix on verb Modal expressing hypothesis yes
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: verbal construction
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: other marking
Verbal Categories - Mood Marking of expected/unexpected action or result There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal frustrative Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal habitual Modal expressing habituality
Verbal Categories - Mood Apprehensive construction There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'
Verbal Categories - Mood Reality status marking on verbs There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'
Verbal Categories - Mood Affect markers (positive/negative) Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative
Verbal Categories - Directionals Directional elements affixed to the verb There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized visual Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized nonvisual Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized inferential Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized reportive Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized quotative Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Other evidential Any other evidential values not represented above
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic yes
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: part of tense system Includes portmanteau morphs no
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: separate particle no
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: modal morpheme no
Verbal Categories - Verbal number Verbal number suppletion yes
Verbal Categories - Other Social interaction markers Note the type of interaction
Word Order No fixed basic constituent order no
Word Order VS in intransitive clauses Verb precedes subject no
Word Order VS in transitive clauses no
Word Order VO in transitive clauses Verb precedes object no
Word Order OS in transitive clauses Object precedes subject no
Word Order Preposition-Noun no
Word Order Noun-Postposition or case suffix yes
Word Order Gen-Noun Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book) yes
Word Order Noun-Gen Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John') no
Word Order Adj-Noun Adjective precedes the noun yes
Word Order Noun-Adj Adjective follows the noun no
Word Order Dem-Noun yes
Word Order Noun-Dem no
Word Order Num-Noun yes
Word Order Noun-Num no
Word Order Noun-Rel Relative clause follows noun that it modifies yes
Word Order Rel-Noun Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies no
Word Order Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative) e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away') no
Word Order Relative clause is correlative or adjoined e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat' no
Word Order Question word is clause initial 'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects yes
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep) no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative yes
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3) no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: split More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc. no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option) no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option) no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. yes
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking on intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take object (P) markers no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects 3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system yes
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects 3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system yes
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Number can be marked separately from person on the verb Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Gender distinguished in verbal person markers For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: indirect object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: double object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: secondary object In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal. no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reflexive: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive. no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Passive Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Antipassive Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Other intransitivizing morphology There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: benefactive Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: other Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: prefix Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: suffix Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: serial verb or analytical construction Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy' Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated sociative Indicates that causer participates in event
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence) There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a preposed element Clausal negator is a preposed element
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a postposed element Clausal negator is a postposed element
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: affix Negatives: affix
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: particle Negatives: particle yes
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: auxiliary verb Negatives: auxiliary verb
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: double Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative expression 'I don't know' Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: interrogative particle Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle yes
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: verb morphology Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology no
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: word order Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) no
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: intonation only Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only no
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Content questions: word order differs from declaratives Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: verbal Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position yes
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: nominal Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position yes
Simple Clauses - Predication Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all) yes
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.
Simple Clauses - Predication Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause
Simple Clauses - Predication Relativizer is a verbal affix
Simple Clauses - Predication Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions Grammaticalized verbal desiderative Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)
Simple Clauses - Other Clause chaining Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked switch-reference system There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence


Ethnographic Information
Current Population (speakers) Former Population Estimate Subsistence Preference Density Sedentism Ecotome Marriage Pattern Notes Source
large AG low mobile no