Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors

Serrano

Family
Uto-Aztecan
Region
North America
ISO 639-3
ser
Location
33.95°, -116.77°
Notes
Features
Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information
Data Sources
none


Basic Vocabulary (185)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes General Notes Source
above encima, arriba acima location -kupia:-7, inheritance KCH2001
again de nuevo, otra vez de novo grammar hamek (hamyk) inheritance R&E2000:218, 290
all todo todos other puju inheritance
and y e grammar ami7 “and” unknown
ankle tobillo tornozelo body navY:-T inheritance
armpit axila, sobaco axila body missing
ash ceniza(s) cinzas environment kuku-t inheritance
at en, a em, a location -pa inheritance
back espalda costas body -tyhpi-7 inheritance
bad mal mal quality kYSa:7 loan
belly barriga barriga body tO7-c loan
below abajo, debajo abaixo location puhtk “below it”, nuhtk “below me” inheritance
big grande grande quality atiY7a7, atY7a7 Y is retro y inheritance
bite morder morder body kY:7 inheritance
black negro preto colour tYnA:- inheritance
blood sangre sangue body YT-T inheritance
blow soplar soprar body puih-kin “blow on w/ mouth” inheritance
boil/pimple espinilla, granos espinha, borbulha body muuki- “sore” inheritance R&E2000
bone hueso osso body O:-T inheritance
breast pecho, seno peito body pi7 (possessed, needs prefix) inheritance
breathe respirar respirar body hi:k “breathe, be alive, get well, be well” inheritance
burn quemar queimar environment hu7a-i (intr) inheritance
chew masticar, mascar mastigar body qa:c unknown
child niño, niña criança human anyi:7c-i7 “small one, little one, baby, child” inheritance
climb subir subir motion hwA:c-q unknown
cloud nube nuvem environment taY:7-T (also “thunder”) inheritance
cold frío frio quality ycy inheritance
come venir vir motion kim inheritance
cook cocinar cozinhar impact kwaha:n(in) inheritance
correct/true verdad, de veras verdade quality mym-q (vi) loan
count contar contar mental ty:7wym inheritance
cry llorar chorar mental ju:-7 inheritance
cut/hack cortar cortar impact cing-kin (cut up as fruit)
day día dia time ta:mi-at inheritance
die/be dead morir morrer state mymy7k (sg) inheritance
dig cavar cavar impact wa:n(a)7-q inheritance
dingo/wolf fauna wercac /wYca-c/ unique R&E2000:265
dirty sucio sujo quality tYnA7n-k unique R&E2000:503
dream soñar sonhar mental kwahcymy7-q inheritance
drink beber, tomar beber body pa:7 inheritance
dry seco seco quality awa:ki=7 inheritance
dull/blunt sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo maçante, desamolado, não afiado quality missing
dust polvo poeira environment tiYva-T inheritance
ear oreja orelha body -qAv, qAva:-c "ear, leaf" inheritance
earth/soil tierra terra environment tiYva-T inheritance
eat comer comer body kwa7-i inheritance
egg huevo ovo fauna -pA:n inheritance
eye ojo olho body huva:-t, huva-c unique
faeces heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol fezes body Sai:7 inheritance
fall caer cair motion huc-q inheritance
far lejos longe quality pyja:n inheritance
fat/grease grasa gordura body wip-t inheritance
father padre, papá pai kinship na7 inheritance
fear miedo medo mental tiYmq loan
feather pluma pena fauna -pOh “fur, body hair, feathers” inheritance
fire fuego fogo environment ku-t inheritance
fish xx xx fauna kihu-T inheritance
flow fluir fluir motion ja-7i (= “run”); wanytu-7 inheritance
flower flor flor environment 0 inheritance
fly volar voar motion hi:ny-(i)7k inheritance
fog niebla, neblina nevoeira, bruma, neblina environment paki:-t inheritance
foot pie pé body navY:-T inheritance
fruit fruta fruta flora pikwa-T “berry” inheritance
good bueno bom quality a7ai inheritance
grow crecer crescer state ja:ng-q “grow, grow up” inheritance
hair (of head) cabello cabelo body 7ajy7 “head, hair” inheritance
hand mano mão body -ma inheritance
3sg el/ella ele/ela grammar ama-7 that, the one, he, she, it inheritance
head cabeza cabeça body -Sy:7 unique
hear oír ouvir mental ma:T inheritance
heavy pesado pesado quality pYTY7 inheritance
hide esconder esconder motion my:j7-kin vt; my:j7-q vi unknown
hit golpear, pegar bater impact wYqO:v “hit” inheritance
hold correr, asegurar, sostener segurar other ja:yTik inheritance
how? como como grammar hami:n' inheritance
1sg yo eu grammar ny:7 inheritance
if si se grammar pyvyipa7 unknown
in/inside dentro, adentro dentro location 7ahu:na- inheritance R&E200:83
intestines intestinos intestinos body -Si inheritance
itch hormiguear, sentir comezón coçar body missing
kill matar matar impact mYkAn (sg obj) inheritance
know/be knowledgeable saber, conecer saber, conhecer mental yna:n inheritance
lake lago lago environment my:m-t (also “ocean”) loan into protolanguage
laugh reír rir mental mamq inheritance
leaf hoja folha environment -qAv, qAva:-c "ear, leaf" inheritance
left/left hand izquierdo esquerdo location/body -7O:-c O is umlaut o inheritance
leg/foot pierna perna body -ca:q leg, lower leg inheritance
lie down acostarse, echarse deitar motion yk (sg); wyn(yi) (pl) “be in a place, lie” inheritance
lightning rayo, relámpago relampago environment tikaltikalq loan
live/be alive vivir viver, morar body hi:k “breathe, be alive or well” inheritance
liver hígado figado body nym-yic inheritance
long largo comprido, longo quality mitat unique
louse piollo, piojo piolho fauna Atym head lice A is retroflex inheritance
lung pulmón pulmão body a-$unga loan Stubbs08:205
man/male hombre homem human wyTY-ST inheritance
meat/flesh carne carne fauna -tuk inheritance R&E2000:86
moon luna lua environment mya:-T/t inheritance
mother madre, mamá mãe kinship -jy-7 inheritance
mouth boca boca body -SyT unknown
name nombre nome human tywan-c inheritance
nape base del cuello, nuca nuca body missing
near/close cerca de perto quality pi:pish inheritance
neck cuello pescoço body ngYh-YT (poss -Y7) (also “voice”) inheritance
new nuevo novo quality amai-t “new one” inheritance
night noche noite time atu:k; tu:k inheritance
no/not no não grammar qai, qa- inheritance
nose nariz nariz body -mukpi7 inheritance
old viejo velho quality uvihpy-T inheritance
one uno um number hau:kp unique
open/uncover abrir abrir other A:n-(a)7kin, A:nY7 (intr) unknown
other otro outro grammar huwa-T inheritance
pain/painful/sick dolor, doloroso, enfermo dor, doloroso, doente body myhcan “be hurt” inheritance
person/human being persona pessoa human ta:q-t inheritance
pound/beat machacar, golpear bater impact pO:ng inheritance
rain lluvia chuva environment wO:ng-t inheritance
red rojo vermelho colour Syri:- inheritance
right/right hand derecha direita location/body 7aiynu7 “right side” (cf. a7ai “good” inheritance
road/path camino caminho manufacture pO:q-t inheritance
root raíz raiz flora -nga:qaw inheritance
rotten podrido podre quality apiSqa7i inheritance
sand arena areia environment O:q-T inheritance
say decir dizer mental qy-i inheritance
scratch rascar rasgar impact waTu-7 unknown
see ver ver mental hii, hihii inheritance
sharp afilado, filudo, filoso afiado quality haca:7i-7 unknown
shoot tirar, disparar, balear atirar impact mu-i inheritance
short corto curto quality kapOcik, qapOcka “short one” O is umlaut inheritance
shoulder hombro ombro body -Sy:k-a7 inheritance
shy/ashamed tímido, vergonzoso timido, com vergonha mental cu:7n (vintr) inheritance
sit sentar(se) sentar state ny:p-q “sit, stay, settle” unknown
skin piel pele body -qOc inheritance
sky cielo céu environment tukuhp-t inheritance
sleep dormir dormir body ku:man unique
small pequeño pequeno quality chilykam loan R&E2000:223
smoke humo fumaça environment mOa:-7t inheritance
sniff/smell olfatear, oler cheirar body hukim (-a-) loan direction unknown
spit escupir cuspir body cOv-kin inheritance
split partir, dividir rachar, dividir, partir impact Sara-7 (vt) inheritance
squeeze estrujar, exprimir espremer impact mAcaq-kin inheritance
stab/pierce apuñalar, acuchillar apunhalar impact cikY:n inheritance
stand estar de pié ficar em pé state cOnu7-q unknown
star estrella estrela environment hu:7-T inheritance
steal robar roubar other yj-yi inheritance
stick/wood palo pau, vara flora kuTa:-t inheritance
stone piedra pedra environment tymy-t inheritance
suck chupar chupar body cu:ng inheritance
sweat sudar suor, suar body jySka7 (v), -jySka7 (n) inheritance
swell hincharse inchar body pO:cq inheritance
swim nadar nadar motion hamiaqaT nakyT-k paav swim in the water inheritance R&E2000:333
tail cola, rabo rabo body -wath (th is voiced) inheritance
that ese/esa esse grammar ama-7 that, the one, he, she, it inheritance
3pl ellos/ellas eles/elas grammar a:m inheritance
thick grueso, gordo, espeso grosso quality missing
thin delgado fino quality jeipka7 “thin one” inheritance
think pensar pensar mental camaqa:n vt unknown
this este/esta este grammar ivi-7 inheritance
2sg xx xx grammar ymi7 inheritance
three tres tres number pa:hi7 inheritance
throat garganta garganta body ngYh-YT (poss -Y7) also “voice” inheritance
throw tirar, lanzar atirar, jogar impact pi:7 inheritance
thunder truenos trovão environment taY:7-T inheritance
tie up/fasten atar, amarrar amarrar impact pOc-kin unknown
tongue lengua lingua body nang-ac inheritance
tooth diente dente body tam-aC inheritance
turn girar, volter, torcer virar other ngOhA:h-q turn w/ forward momentum, change direction, go around a bend inheritance
two dos dois number wOh inheritance
vomit vomitar vomitar body pi:S (no eg's -- only from Miller?) inheritance
walk caminar, andar andar motion nym(yi) inheritance
water agua agua environment pa:-T inheritance
1pl.excl nosotros (exclusivo) nós (exclusivo) grammar acam inheritance
1pl.incl nosotros (inclusivo) nós (inclusivo) grammar acam inheritance
wet mojado molhado quality pa:Tu “be or become wet” inheritance
what? que, qué que grammar hi:t inheritance
when? cuando quando grammar hai:pa7n inheritance
where? donde onde grammar hai:ngkwa7, haip, hai:piu7 inheritance
white blanco branco colour jara:7- unknown
who? quien, quién quem grammar hai:m, hami-7 inheritance
wife esposa esposa kinship -tyjy-7 inheritance
wind viento vento environment Syvyt inheritance
wing ala asa body maha-c, -ma inheritance
woman/female mujer mulher human nY:ht “woman” loan
work trabajar trabalhar other tyhty-i inheritance
yawn bostezar bocejar body kuhkuman unique
yellow amarillo amarelo colour SaTi:- unknown
2pl ustedes vocês grammar i:m inheritance


Flora Fauna Vocabulary (130)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Linnean Name Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Etymology Notes Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Range of Term Word Structure Word Structure Notes Classifier Classifier Notes Hypernym Source Association with Social Categories Ritual/Mythologically Significant Ritual Notes Food Source Food Notes Medicinal Medicinal Notes How Collected Who Collects How Prepared Psychotropic Psychotropic Notes Traded Trade Notes Distribution Habitat Dangerous Ethnobiology Notes Species Notes General Notes
abalone flora-fauna Haliotis spp. missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 1 no
ant (generic) hormiga formiga flora-fauna Formicidae ar:nyr-ht ant (any) (CHM); KCH a large kind of ant inheritance *7alɨN- Uto-Aztecan S44 (Stubbs 2009:44) other complex -t NPN Merriam 60:111; KCHill ms 2001:7 0 0 2 0 0 no
antelope flora-fauna Antilocapra americana tŭ-mertz, tŭ-winz tymyT? antelope inheritance *tɨn(nV)- Northern Uto-Aztecan S52 (Stubbs 2009:45), the *tɨm(V)nV- possibility is worth considering. May be a loan into PNUA from Proto-Kiowa-Tanoan. Note Mutsun tiwyen other complex -c NPN Merriam 60-97, 72-77 2 1 0 0 0 no
badger flora-fauna Taxidea taxus hu:navt badger inheritance *hurap- Uto-Aztecan S105 (Stubbs 2009:53) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:16 2 1 0 0 0 yes
bald eagle flora-fauna Haliaeetus leucocephalus missing missing missing 1 2 0 0 1 no
band-tail pigeon flora-fauna Patagioenas fasciata muk'-kah how'-wut band-tail pigeon inheritance *makahVwi Uto-Aztecan S676 (Stubbs 2009:126) phrase dove pigeon ? Merriam 72-27; 60-101 0 1 0 0 0 no
bat murciélago morcego flora-fauna Chiroptera spp walu:lu-T bat unique other complex -T non-possessed noun suffix (NPN) KCHill ms 2001:62 0 1 0 0 0 no
beaver flora-fauna Castor missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
beetle flora-fauna Coleoptera spp hu:hua7-T stink beetle inheritance *huhuCa Northern Uto-Aztecan S313 (Stubbs 2008:83): in Kitaneumuk and Hopi hohoyaw. Possibly a regionalism just missing in intermediate langauges? May include the “fart” word. other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:16 2 0 0 0 0 no
big round tule flora-fauna Schoenoplectus acutus pe'-wum' big round tule inheritance Kitaneumk pivuht “tule” is similar but not identical, shouldn't have a plural so what is this? Is this related to piivat “tobacco” (reeds used for pipes). See Luiseño pivee$ash. underived Merriam 60:121 2 1 2 0 0 no
big skunk flora-fauna Mephitis mephitis por:nivyr-T skunk inheritance *po(C)ni Northern Uto-Aztecan S1983 (Stubbs 2009:275); he thinks U-A but I doubt it other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:44 2 2 0 0 0 no
big wolf (gray wolf) flora-fauna Canis lupus wana-T big wolf (same as mountain lion?) inheritance *wana- Northern Uto-Aztecan also in Kitanemuk. I'll bet this is S557a *wanci7a “fox” which must be *wana-ci7a with a diminutive; these forms attest to an additional vowel. In Central and Southern Numic. May be an arealism/loan. Note Yokutsan * *ɂawčhaɂ 'fox' other complex -t NPN Merriam 72:27 1 2 0 0 0 yes
bighorn sheep flora-fauna Ovis canadensis pa:7t mountain sheep inheritance *pa7aC- Northern Uto-Aztecan S204 (Stubbs 2009:67); may be a Proto-Kiowa-Tanoan loan into PNUA other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:41 2 1 0 0 0 no
bird pajaro, ave passaro flora-fauna wicit bird inheritance *wi(t)tiki Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 205a (2009:67)these wici forms in Serran and S. Numic; Tb. has chikit (is wi- a prefix??? Or is Tb a Miwokan loan?) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:63 0 0 0 0 0 no
black ant flora-fauna Camponotus pennsylvanicus/Lasius niger kah-powm big black ant unique other complex looks like a plural suffix -m Merriam 60:111 2 0 0 0 0 no
black bear flora-fauna Ursus americanus hu:na-t bear inheritance *huna-wɨ-ta Californian S132 (Stubbs 2009:59). This is “big badger”; *hura(p) “badger” is UA etymon. But this only means “bear” in Californian. other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:16 1 2 0 0 0 yes
black-tail Jackrabbit flora-fauna Lepus californicus hwi:7-t jackrabbit inheritance *suu7it Northern Uto-Aztecan S1713 (Stubbs 2009:243): I give Manaster-Ramer's reonstruction other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:17 2 1 0 0 0 no
blackberry flora-fauna Rubus ursinus pikwa-T berry, blackberry (CHM confirms 60:115) inheritance *pi(kwa-) Takic S182 (Stubbds 2009:64) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:43 2 1 2 0 0 no
blue grouse flora-fauna Dendrogapus? kakawt grouse semantic shift *kacaC-wɨ Uto-Aztecan S1702a (Stubbs 2008:241); usually “mountain quail”, perhaps a consultant error WW %kaka other complex -w-t Augmentative-NPN KCHill ms 2001:22 0 1 0 0 0 no
bobcat, lynx flora-fauna Lynx rufus tukut bobcat inheritance *tuCkuC- Northern Uto-Aztecan S1306 (Stubbs 2009:200). This is a California Wanderwort; Great Basin forms giving NUA are surely loans. But loan may be early beause Hopi has regular vocalism and Hopi vowel shift definitely before 13th C. WW %tuku other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:57 1 2 0 0 0 no
butterfly, moth mariposa borboleta flora-fauna Lepidoptera lalava-T butterfly unique other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:27 2 0 0 0 0 no
California condor flora-fauna Gymnogyps californianus pa: wirukt California condor inheritance *wiLhukuN Uto-Aztecan pa- is “big”; S335 (Stubbs 2008:86) phrase big buzzard Merriam 72:27 1 2 0 0 1 no
California jay flora-fauna Aphelocoma californica? chi'-chi California jay loan *cha7i- Northern Uto-Aztecan Yokuts Kitanemuk cayca7y “blue jay”; S209, Central Numic, Tubatulabal, Takic, always “blue jay” (Stubbs 2009:68). Note similarity of Yokuts, Chumash words. I think this reduplicated form is recent Yokutsan loan. WW %chaj reduplicated Merriam 72-27, 60-101 2 1 0 0 0 no
California woodpecker flora-fauna Melanerpes formicivorus? pe'-vahnts California woodpecker inheritance Takic In Kitanemuk, also Gab. pe-var” (CHM 72-77, 60-423) other complex -t NPN Merriam 72-27, 60-103 2 1 0 0 1 no
chia flora-fauna Salvia columbariae pa:hinaT chia (CHM confirms 60-119) inheritance *pasa/i Californian S1599 (Stubbs 2009:233). Only Numic is Tumpisa Shoshone, almost certainly a loan from Tubatulabal, and Kawaiisu. This shows up in Chumash, Salinan, Kiliwa! May be an old Californianism. WW %pasv other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:41 1 1 1 0 0 no
chipmunk flora-fauna Tamias spp. hika:y-t chipmunk (CHM says hikayt is tree squirrel, wisko (Cahuilla loan) is chipmunk 72-77, 60-99) loan into protolanguage *sika(-wV-) Northern Uto-Aztecan Gabrielino S2094a (Stubbs 2008:288) WW %sik other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:13 2 1 0 0 0 no
cliff swallow flora-fauna Petrochelidon pyrrhonota su'-wut ahn-kin'-ne-ahts cliff swallow “wind open” unique phrase wind opener? Merriam 60-103 2 1 0 0 0 no
coot flora-fauna Fulica americana missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
cottontail rabbit flora-fauna Sylvilagus audobonii tiiyrhaqt cottontail rabbit (CHM confirms 72-27) inheritance *tosa-kammu (Stubbs); this is *tosa-xaC- by me Northern Uto-Aztecan S1709 (Stubbs 2009:242); frankly I doubt Stubbs kammu (jackrabbit in Numic). . Note Central and Southern Sierra Miwok Tós:ewe-, Cupeno tisixat. other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:56 2 1 0 0 0 no
cottonwood flora-fauna Populus spp. wah'-mut cottonwood (= tree) unique Serran other complex -t NPN Merriam 72:29, 60:113 2 0 2 0 0 no
coyote flora-fauna Canis latrans wahi7 coyote unique Serran Also in Kitanemuk; Stubbs suggests related to Hopi waha “bark, v.”; maybe underived KCHill ms 2001:62 1 2 0 0 0 no
crow flora-fauna Corvus brachyrhynchos arTaw-t r is retroflexion/pharyngealization on preceding vowel; T is retroflex crow loan into protolanguage *atawɨ-t Northern Uto-Aztecan Yokuts S582b (Stubbs 2008:116) WW %alwut other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:6 2 1 0 0 0 no
datura flora-fauna Datura wrightii ma:nic jimsonweed, toloache inheritance *mani- Takic may be a loan; S1639 (Stubbs 2009:235); Gabrielino a good candidate for source language within Takic WW %mani other complex -c NPN KCHill ms 2001:29 1 1 1 1 0 yes
deer, mule flora-fauna Odocoileus hemionus hukaht deer inheritance *suCkaC- Uto-Aztecan S621 (Stubbs 2009:121) WW %sok other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:15 2 1 0 0 0 no
digger pine flora-fauna Pinus sabiniana missing missing missing 2 1 2 0 0 no
dog (camp, domestic) perro cachorro flora-fauna Canis familiaris kuci7 dog loan no information *ku- words for dog are areal, oriented northward; this loan into Serran as also in Kitanemuk underived KCHill ms 2001:23 0 0 0 0 0 no
dogbane flora-fauna Apocynum cannabinum missing missing missing 2 1 2 0 0 no
dove paloma pomba flora-fauna Zenaida macrocoura muk'-hahT; muk'-haht dove inheritance *makahV- Uto-Aztecan S676 (Stubbs 2009:126) other complex -t NPN Merriam 72-27:60-101 2 1 0 0 0 no
duck pato pato, marreco flora-fauna Anatidae paht'-too-yă all ducks loan Spanish Spanish pato, presumably WW %pato underived Merriam 72-27, 60-107 0 1 0 0 0 no
elder flora-fauna Sambucus ku:ht elderberry, elderberry tree inheritance *kuhu- Californian S179 other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:24 2 1 1 0 0 no
elk flora-fauna Cervas elaphus pa:hukaht elk inheritance *pa:-suka- Takic S788:139 “elk” WW %sok phrase big deer Merriam 60-97 2 1 0 0 0 no
fish (generic) pez peixe flora-fauna ke'-ho>tR fish inheritance *kɨcuC Uto-Aztecan S864 (Stubbs 2009;147) other complex -t NPN Merriam 60:111 0 1 0 0 0 no
flea pulga pulga flora-fauna Siphonaptera missing missing missing 2 0 0 0 0 no
flicker flora-fauna Colaptes sp. kē'-mahtR, ke'-mahts ki:marT Flicker inheritance *kima:- Takic Gab. ke'mar”; a bit cautionary on “takic” since much Serrano/Gabrielino bilingualism along a long frontier other complex -t NPN Merriam 72-27, 60-101 2 1 0 0 1 no
blowfly/housefly mosca mosca flora-fauna Diptera pi:c(i)cua7-T fly unique Serran see Gab. pi:cukwar; probably a regional element here, it's in Tub “horsefly” also; contains Stubbs 1184 *pitti, also in “hummingbird” other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:44 0 0 0 0 0 no
foothills yucca flora-fauna Yucca whipplei u:mu-T Spanish dagger, a yucca stalk that is eaten (CHM confirms Y. whipplei 60:119 inheritance *amuwV Uto-Aztecan S4 (Stubbs 2009:40) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:60 0 1 blossoms and root cooked, good food 0 0 0 no
fox flora-fauna Vulpes, Urocyon qor:Ta-T fox (CHM confirms Urocyon 72:27 inheritance *kawosi Northern Uto-Aztecan S556 (Stubbs 2009;113); this is an unusual development from *kawo, not really a nice cognate. other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:50 from original file slip 2 2 0 0 0 no
frog (generic) flora-fauna waqar-t frog inheritance *wakaC-ta Uto-Aztecan S940 (Stubbs 2009:157) WW %wakat other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:62 2 2 0 0 0 no
golden eagle flora-fauna Aquila chrysaetos ahyrngt eagle inheritance Californian S719 (Stubbs 2008:131); note Yuman forms, perhaps Proto-Yuman *7as/shpa, as a possible source. But given this regular *s > n, if this is a loan it was very early in Takic other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:2 1 2 0 0 1 no
gooseberry flora-fauna Ribes spp. missing missing missing 2 1 1 0 0 no
gopher snake, bull snake flora-fauna Pituophis catenifer kuk-kort'R, kr'-krKT gopher or bull snake inheritance *koNwa- Uto-Aztecan S2009 (Stubbs 2008:279) other complex -t NPN Merriam 60-109 2 2 0 0 0 no
grass hierba, pasto capim, grama flora-fauna (NA) ha:mt grass inheritance &sama/u- Northern Uto-Aztecan S1025a (Stubbs 2009:166; similar Yuman forms need thought other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:13 0 0 0 0 0 no
grasshopper flora-fauna Caelifera wor7-orht grasshopper inheritance *wo7V- Uto-Aztecan S1034 (Stubbs 2009:167) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:65 2 1 0 0 0 no
gray ground squirrel flora-fauna Sphermophilus sp. kĕr'-rum; kŭr'-runt, kŭr-rumpt gray ground squirrel unique Could this be just 17 in CHM's interpretation? other complex -t NPN Merriam 72-27, 60-97 2 1 0 0 0 no
gray tree squirrel flora-fauna Sciurus spp. qor:ng-t squirrel (CHM confirms tree quirrel 72:27 inheritance *kongi- Northern Uto-Aztecan S2092 (Stubbs 2008:288) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:50 2 1 0 0 0 no
great horned owl flora-fauna Bubo virginianus mu:m-t owl (CHM confirms great horned owl) inheritance *muhuN Uto-Aztecan S1542 (Stubbs 2009:228) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:32 1 2 2 0 1 no
grizzly bear flora-fauna Ursus arctos horribilis hu:na-t grizzly bear (CHM confirms same word 60:95 inheritance *huna-wɨ-ta Californian S132 (Stubbs 2009:59). This is “big badger”; *hura(p) “badger” is UA etymon. But this only means “bear” in Californian. other complex -t NPN Merriam 60:95 1 2 0 0 0 yes
horned toad flora-fauna Phrynosomatidae tupar7xoriñi; typar7qRiñi (58 horned toad (CHM confirms 60:109) unique phrase note qRi:ñiñi “dragonfly” (p. 58); I have no idea what this means, insufficient lexical information KCHill ms 2001:8 2 2 2 0 0 no
horse caballo cavalho flora-fauna Equus caballus -7a:ci7, kava:ju7 (22) horse, possessed animal inheritance *7aci- Takic The Takic “pet” word, really does seem to be more common based on texts underived KCHill ms 2001:6 0 0 0 0 0 no
hummingbird colibrí, picaflor (Peru) beija-flor flora-fauna Trochilidae piti:dhi7 hummingbird inheritance *pitsi/*pitti- Uto-Aztecan S1184 (Stubbs 2009:185) underived KCHill ms 2001:43 0 0 0 0 0 no
tobacco tabaco tabaco flora-fauna Nicotiana spp. pi:v-t tobacco inheritance *pipaC- Uto-Aztecan S2290 (Stubbs 2008:310) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:44 1 1 1 1 0 yes
insect (generic) insecto insecto flora-fauna generic missing missing missing 0 0 2 0 0 variable
junco flora-fauna Junco sppp wolft' wyr(:)vt junco unique other complex -t NPN Merriam 72-77, 60-105 0 1 0 0 0 no
juniper flora-fauna Juniperus californica waht' juniper inheritance *wa7aC- Northern Uto-Aztecan S414 (Stubbs 2009:94) other complex -t NPN Merriam 60:113 2 1 1 0 0 no
louse flora-fauna order Phtiraptera arTym head lice inheritance *7atɨC- Uto-Aztecan S1357 (Stubbs 2009:205) other complex looks like a plural suffix -m KCHill ms 2001:6 2 0 0 0 0 no
mallard flora-fauna Anas platyrhynchos missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
manzanita flora-fauna Arctostaphylos spp. kootCH chah, koot'R A. glauca inheritance *kɨta- Takic I think this is hitherto unnoticed member of S1635, requiring revision of S's reconstruction (Stubbs 2009:235) based on Cupan *kɨlV-l other complex -t NPN Merriam 72-29, 60-115 2 1 1 0 0 no
milkweed, broad leaf flora-fauna Asclepias eriocarpa missing missing missing 2 1 1 0 0 no
milkweed, narrow leaf flora-fauna Asclepias fascicularis ky7at gum plant inheritance *kɨya- Takic See Cahuilla kiyat “A. eriocarpa” other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:25 0 1 1 0 0 no
mission tule flora-fauna Juncus missing missing missing 2 1 2 0 0 no
mockingbird flora-fauna Mimus polyglottos $yTy:t mockingbird (CHM confirms 60-105) unique other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:53 2 1 0 0 0 no
mosquito mosquito, zancudo mosquito, carapana flora-fauna Anopheles spp, Isoptera how-wow'-wut mosquito unique Serran contains /wa-/ element in, for e.g., Taracahitan waho, Tepiman wamug; NOTE KAWAiisu waca-vi “yellow jacket” other complex -t NPN Merriam 60:111 0 0 0 0 0 no
moth mariposa nocturna, polilla mariposa flora-fauna Heterocera missing missing missing 2 0 0 0 0 no
mountain lion flora-fauna Puma concolor wana-T mountain lion (CHM has tukut-troit/ tro'-ŭt 60>33, 72:27 inheritance *wana- Northern Uto-Aztecan I'll bet this is S557a *wanci7a “fox” which must be *wana-ci7a with a diminutive ; these forms attest to an additional vowel. In Central and Southern Numic. May be an arealism/loan. Note Yokutsan * *ɂawčhaɂ 'fox' other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:62 1 Coyote's older brother 2 0 0 0 yes
mountain quail flora-fauna Oreortyx pictus ki'-itch kah-kah'-tah, kah-kowt' qai:c kaka:ta7 mountain quail inheritance *kacaC Uto-Aztecan second element is Stubbs 1702a (2009:241); this is a neologism/loan-translation; qai:c “mountain” WW %kaka phrase mountain quail Merriam 72:27, 60-101 2 1 0 0 0 no
mussel flora-fauna Mytilus spp. missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 1 no
olivella (olive snail) flora-fauna Callianax biplicata missing missing missing 2 2 0 0 1 no
pinyon jay flora-fauna Cyanocitta stelleri? too'-bah ahts tyvah a7a:c “pinyon jay” (once a person) unique This is a neologism/loan-translation phrase pinyon crow M 72-27 2 1 0 0 0 no
pinyon pine flora-fauna Pinus monophylla tyvat pinyon inheritance *tɨpat Northern Uto-Aztecan S1583 (Stubbs 2009:231); probably a loan into Proto-NUA from Proto-Kiowa Tanoan (Hill 2008) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:58 2 1 2 0 1 no
pismo clam flora-fauna Tivella stultorum missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 1 no
pocket gopher flora-fauna Thomomys mi:nga-ht gopher inheritance *mɨjɨN- Northern Uto-Aztecan S1009 (Stubbs 2008:164) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:30 2 1 0 0 0 no
poison oak flora-fauna Toxicodendron diversilobum o'-e'-tram, oo-e'-chum poison oak inheritance *7ɨjaa- Californian S1506 (Stubbs 2009:224); seems to be a plural other complex looks like a plural suffix -m Merriam 72-29, 60-117 2 2 2 0 0 yes
rattlesnake flora-fauna Crotalus spp. hyr:ng-t rattlesnake (CHM confirms) inheritance *sɨwɨn- Takic S2011a (Stubbs 2008:280); not Stubbs' reconstruction, but Kitanemuk, Serrano are conservative in retaining these nasals. other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:17 1 2 0 0 0 yes
red ant flora-fauna Solenopsis spp ar:nyr-ht red ant (CHM); KCH a large kind of ant inheritance *7alɨN- Uto-Aztecan S44 (Stubbs 2009:44) other complex -t NPN Merriam 60:111 1 0 1 0 0 no
red-shouldered blackbird flora-fauna Agelaius phoeniceus missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
red-tailed hawk flora-fauna Buteo jamaicensis kwa:7T red-tailed hawk (CHM confirms 72-27) inheritance *kwa7a Northern Uto-Aztecan S716a (Stubbs 2008:131) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:25 2 2 0 0 0 no
roadrunner flora-fauna Geococcyx californianus pu:hia7-t roadrunner inheritance *puhi/*pu7i/*puwi Uto-Aztecan final increment is augmentative (as in Gab., Kit.) WW %pu: other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:46 2 1 0 0 0 no
ruddy duck flora-fauna Oxyura jamaicensis missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
sage herb flora-fauna Artemisia californica hoo'-troo-hwahtR Artemisia californica inheritance *hulupa- Northern Uto-Aztecan S1597 (Stubbs 2009:233) other complex -t NPN Merriam 60:119 2 2 1 0 0 no
salmon/steelhead flora-fauna Oncorhynchus mykiss missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
scaly lizard flora-fauna Pygopus lepidopodus? car:ngt lizard sp. (CHM confirms Sceloporus 60:109) inheritance *canga Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 1331; only other form is Southern Paiute, may be a regionalism, not NUA other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:8 2 2 0 0 0 no
small bird flora-fauna missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 0 no
small brown lizard flora-fauna missing missing missing KCHill ms 2001:8 2 2 0 0 0 no
snake (generic) culebra, serpiente cobra flora-fauna hyr:ng-t snake, any (CHM confirms) inheritance *sɨwɨn- Takic S2011a (Stubbs 2008:280); not Stubbs' reconstruction, but Kitanemuk, Serrano are conservative in retaining these nasals. other complex -t NPN Merriam 60-109 0 1 0 0 0 no
soaproot flora-fauna Chlorogalum missing missing missing 2 1 1 0 0 no
sour berry flora-fauna Rhus trilobata hy:T R. trilobata “for baskets”, CHM's hootsCH; KCH “a kind of basket weed” inheritance *sɨ(ta) Californian Note Cahuilla selet, Gabrielino sorat, Tubatulabal shyl other complex -t NPN Merriam 60:117; Kchill ms 2001:16 2 1 1 0 0 no
sparrow hawk flora-fauna Falco kre'-yu kre'-ets, kre'-yu kre'-yuts Sparrow hawk inheritance *kɨLɨ; *kɨtɨ Uto-Aztecan S721 (Stubbs 2008:131); but very widespread, sound-imitative; /y/ from *L a bit odd although not unknown reduplicated -t NPN Merriam 72-27, 60-101 2 2 0 0 0 no
spider araña aranha flora-fauna Arachnida, Araneae kuka-T spider inheritance *kukkaC- Northern Uto-Aztecan S2057 (Stubbs 2009:285) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:24 0 0 2 0 0 variable
spotted skunk flora-fauna Spilogale gracilis por:nivyr-T little spotted skunk (same word Merriam) inheritance *po(C)ni Northern Uto-Aztecan S1983 (Stubbs 2008:275); he thinks U-A but I doubt it other complex -t NPN Merriam 72:27 2 2 0 0 0 no
toad sapo sapo flora-fauna Bufonidae missing missing missing 2 2 0 0 0 no
tree árbol arvore flora-fauna (NA) wama-t tree(s), woods unique same as “cottonwood”, but this doesn't mean “tree” in Kitanemuk other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:62 0 0 2 0 0 no
tree yucca flora-fauna Yucca schidegera choor'-martR Yucca schidegera unique Serran other complex -t NPN Merriam 60:119 2 1 0 0 0 no
turkey buzzard flora-fauna Cathartes aura wirukt buzzard inheritance *wiLhukuN Uto-Aztecan S335 (Stubbs 2008:36) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:25 2 2 0 0 0 no
turtle (generic) flora-fauna Testudines qorport-t turtle loan Yuman see Stubbs 2360 (Stubbs 2008:317). These forms are ONLY in Serrano, Kitanemuk (which is same language, really). Possibly the ko- element is related to ko in “back, shell”. But note Yavapai kpít, Mojave kapet other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:50 2 2 0 0 1 no
valley live oak flora-fauna Quercus agrifolia wi7aht mountain Live Oak (Merriam def.) inheritance *wi7aN- Northern Uto-Aztecan S1507b (Stubbs 2009:224) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001: 2 1 2 0 1 no
valley oak flora-fauna Quercus lobata ipaaT CHM says is Valley Oak (cognates are Q. dumosa) inheritance *pawa Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 1504 (2008:223); the initial 7i- is obscure, the rest is excellent. other complex -t NPN Merriam 60:113; KCHill ms 2001:18 2 1 2 0 1 no
valley quail flora-fauna Callipepla californica kaka:ta7 quail (CHM confirms valley quail) inheritance *kacaC Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 1702a WW %kaka underived KCHill ms 2001:22 2 1 0 0 0 no
Washington clam flora-fauna Saxidomus nuttalli missing missing missing 2 1 0 0 1 no
Western Canada goose flora-fauna Branta canadensis ah-chowkt Western Canada goose unique other complex -t NPN Merriam 60-107 0 1 0 0 0 no
whale flora-fauna Eschrichtius robustus missing missing missing 2 1 2 0 1 no
white pelican flora-fauna Pelicanus erythrorhynchos missing missing missing 0 2 0 0 0 no
wild grapevine flora-fauna Vitis californica nyhnga-T grape, grapes loan Southern Chumash Barbareno, Ineseno , Ventureno nu'nit'; other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:36 2 1 2 0 0 no
wild oats flora-fauna Avena (introduction) missing missing missing 2 1 2 0 0 no
wild rose flora-fauna Rosa californica missing missing missing 0 1 2 0 0 no
wild sunflower flora-fauna Helianthus (and other genera) pa7aqT plant sp. (prob. Helianthus or Encelia farinosa) (CHM confirms Helianthus) inheritance *(pa)7a7ka Uto-Aztecan other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:39 0 1 0 0 0 no
willow flora-fauna Salix spp. haqat willow inheritance *sakat Uto-Aztecan S1023 (Stubbs 2009:166) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:12 2 2 1 0 0 no
wood rat, round-tail flora-fauna Neotoma spp. qar:-T rat, woodrat inheritance *kawa- Northern Uto-Aztecan S1423 (Stubbs 2009:242) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:49 2 1 0 0 0 no
worm, hairy caterpillar flora-fauna Arctiidae (many species) missing missing missing 2 2 0 0 0 no
worm, smooth caterpillar flora-fauna Trichoplusia ni (?) cabbage looper ku7a:-T mo:caT “worm” worm, maggot inheritance *ku7a- Takic S893 (Stubbs 2008:152) other complex -t NPN KCHill ms 2001:23 2 2 0 0 0 no
yellow jacket flora-fauna Vespula spp., Dolichovespula spp. pahng'-ă-hahts paha:nga-T yellow jacket inheritance *sanga- Takic S160 (Stubbs 2009:62); contains pa- “big” prefix not in Kitanemuk phrase pa: “big” plus bee Merriam 60:111 2 0 0 0 0 no
yellowbird flora-fauna Dendroica petechia missing missing missing 0 1 0 0 0 no
yerba santa flora-fauna Eriodictyon californicum oor-hahnt Yerba Santa unique other complex -t NPN Merriam 72:29, 60:117 2 1 1 0 0 no
ant (generic) hormiga formiga flora-fauna A:nY-ht “large kind of ant” inheritance
bird pajaro, ave passaro flora-fauna wici-t inheritance
blowfly/housefly mosca mosca flora-fauna pi:c(i)cua7-T loan direction unknown
dog (camp, domestic) perro cachorro flora-fauna kuci7 inheritance
grass hierba, pasto capim, grama flora-fauna ha:m-t inheritance
deer venado veado, cariacu flora-fauna hukaht inheritance
snake (generic) culebra, serpiente cobra flora-fauna hY:ng-t “rattlesnake” inheritance
spider araña aranha flora-fauna kukach, kukam “spiders” inheritance R&E2000:215,95


Cultural Vocabulary (115)
English Spanish Portuguese Semantic Field Part of Speech Orthographic Form Phonemicized Form Gloss as in Source Etymology Code Proto-Form Proto-Language Loan Source Wanderwort Status Etyma Set Etymology Notes Word Structure Word Structure Notes General Notes Source
acorn mush food wič acorn mush inheritance *wiw Takic Stubbs 2011,1557 other complex K. Hill Dict.
ball game food puçahkin to play ball game unknown Serran only simplex root, probably complex origin but unanalyzable K. Hill Dict. (from Miller 1988)
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven tierra do los muertos terra dos mortos culture-mythology to-e'-pe-at tyīpiat final abode, 'all get there' inheritance *tywi- Takic Stubbs 1799 with -piat, what's that other complex K. Hill Dict., Merriam confirms
feather headband dress ah-pootch-kah, ah-pwū'-witch-kah headband unknown the pwu might be the poho feather word??? other complex Merriam 48:173
arrow flecha flecha subsistence tool hūç arrow inheritance *huca Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 63 other complex K. Hill Dict
arrow straightener other missing missing
bait for fishing cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru) isca subsistence tool missing missing
school escuela escola acculturation yskwela7 school loan Spanish WW %escuela simplex K. Hill Dict.
stone bowl culture-material missing missing
basket (general) canasta, canasto, cesta cesto culture-material nyā' (poss) basket inheritance *nyhaC Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 120 has only as Takic but see T. Shoshone form simplex
basket, small canasta, canasto, cesta cesto pequeno, tampado culture-material čiport small round basket inheritance *cippat Takic Stubbs 2011 122 other complex
basketry hat culture-material kumua't (CHM wo-koo'-mut in Yokuts???) basket cap loan Yokuts Yokuts Serran only other complex K. Hill Dict.
bead abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar miçanga culture-material missing missing
ochre culture-mythology navjot hematite in R loan Gabrielino also in Luiseno simplex Hill Harrington notes under ohi:t
bow arco arco subsistence tool ă-part'k bow, gun inheritance *pakoti Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 277 other complex Merriam 48:179
canoe canoa canoa transport missing missing
carrying net subsistence tool kwiht carrying net inheritance *kusa or *kwisa Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 396c,d other complex
bottle botella garrafa acculturation pahat bottle inheritance *paa-*sa7a Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 2497, this is 'carry water' other complex *paa-sa7a, but not synchronically K. Hill Dict.
paper papel papel acculturation papēl paper loan Spanish WW %papel simplex K. Hill Dict.
chief/leader jefe, cacique chefe culture-mythology ke'-kah chief inheritance *kika Uto-Aztecan widespread, cf. O'odham kikitam 'residents of a village' derived Merriam 48:193
club garrote, cachiporra clava, porrete subsistence tool missing missing
loincloth taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla tanga, tapa-sexo dress tahp-row'-wah breechcloth unknown same as Gab phrase Merriam 48:173
cook food food kwahān cook inheritance *kwasi/aC Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 421 simplex root K. Hill Dict.
corpse food amym7ki7 (sg.), aqor7im (pl) dead person, people inheritance *mukki Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 655 derived, other complex K. Hill Dict.
dance (generic) culture-mythology tuhtu' to dance inheritance *tawiya Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 634 simplex root K. Hill Dict.
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure dios(es), deidad divinidade, figura mítica culture-mythology ny-'ajynu'ç god (literally, 'the one at my right') unique Merriam has tamyat < Ca. 48:191) derived, other complex K. Hill Dict.
digging stick subsistence tool wān'kinihwa't digging tool, something to dig with unique Stubbs 2011:667 (only Takic, and problematic) is the root of this formation derived, other complex K. Hill Dict.
dipper subsistence tool nŭ-pi'-wah gourd cup or dipper inheritance *pa(wi) Uto-Aztecan denominal on water word simplex Merriam 48:181
dream sueño, soñar sonho, sonhar culture-mythology kwahčumuk to dream unknown Serran only other complex K. Hill Dict.
drone pipe culture-mythology missing missing
drum tambor tambor culture-mythology missing missing
chicken gallina galinha acculturation gajīna7 chicken, hen loan Spanish WW %gallina simplex K. Hill Dict.
earring other nu-chah-hō''m my ear pendant inheritance *cVLu Takic Cahuilla & Cupeno, Serrano cha-hoom (CHM), Kit. chahuch, not regular, perhaps a loan from somewhere other complex Merriam 48:173
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio espirito culture-mythology tyīt death spirit, devil inheritance *tywi- Takic Stubbs 1799 other complex
fire drill subsistence tool nŭ-koo-t-kin'-ne-what fire drill (tin/kin as alternate) unique derived, other complex Merriam 48:179
fire-tender culture-mythology missing missing
fireplace hogar lareira other noo-koot-tan-noo'-ak fireplace unique phrase Merriam 48:175
firewood leña lenha other kuçāt firewood inheritance *kutawi Northern Uto-Azteca Stubbs 2011 2409a; S. thinks this is 2408 but loss of w is regular other complex
fish (with fish-poison) pescar con barbasco, barbasquear pescar com timbó; tinguijar food missing missing
fish (with line) anzuelear, pescar con linea pescar (com linha) food missing missing
fish poison barbasco, matapez (Colombia) timbó subsistence tool missing missing
fishing line cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze linha de pesca subsistence tool missing missing
fish hook subsistence tool missing missing
acorn bread food $āwt acorn bread loan into protolanguage *saw- Takic Wintun WW %saw Stubbs 2011 266c other complex K. Hill Dict.
wheat food trīwa7 wheat loan Spanish WW %trigo simplex K. Hill Dict.
flute flauta, quena (Peru) flauta culture-mythology wīrui'nihwa't, wirui'nit reed flute inheritance *wiLu PNUA Stubbs 912 derived, other complex K. Hill Dict.
gambling sticks other tĕ'-poo-nem, mwo'-aht the counters in the terpwinch gambling game inheritance *typo- Californian see Tubatulabal simplex Merriam 48:195
game animal caza, animal de caza caça, animal de caça food missing missing
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio espirito culture-mythology tyīt death spirit, devil inheritance *tywi- Takic Stubbs 1799 other complex K. Hill Dict.
glue subsistence tool narčkin to glue, stick together inheritance *nay- Northern Uto-Aztecan na-20, the 'copulate' word; K. Hill says "ch is unexpected" other complex
grave tumba, sepultura, sepulcro sepultura, sepulcro, cova culture-mythology tār'vert want'-kan-neetch; moktCH, mo'ke-haht'r, moo-ke-hat 'burial place' earth dug out, grave unique phrase Merriam 48:189, 191
alcohol food pā7ia7ç whiskey inheritance *pa Uto-Aztecan water, with embellishments derived, other complex K. Hill Dict.
Datura wrightii narcotics mānič Datura meteloides loan Gabrielino or Cahuilla WW %mani loan as Serrano should lose the /i/ other complex although a loan, has normal ABS K. Hill Dict.
shaman, healer chamán, brujo xaman, pajé, feiticeiro culture-mythology hōrmč shaman unique other complex K. Hill Dict.
honey miel mel food pīhč honey inheritance *pisa(L) Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 2259 other complex K. Hill Dict.
house other kīč house inheritance *ki: Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 1214 other complex K. Hill Dict.
hunt cazar caçar food hyiñ to hunt inheritance *hya Northern Uto-Aztecan Hill/Miller hy-06 simplex root K. Hill Dict.
initiate boy culture-mythology missing missing
initiate girl culture-mythology kwa-hahn' puberty dance (literally, 'to cook' JHH) semantic shift *kwasi Uto-Aztecan simplex root, literally 'to cook' Merriam 48:191
knife cuchillo faca culture-material kavorç knife unknown Serran only; perhaps from ka-32 'cut' other complex K. Hill Dict.
mat culture-material tu-reech tule mat unique other complex Merriam 48:177
mortar mortero pilão subsistence tool too'-e-hwat portable mortar unique formation on 'grind' Stubbs 2011 1086 derived, other complex Merriam 48:179
necklace other qornqat necklace inheritance *koLoka Uto-Aztecan WW %xene Stubbs 2011 1505 other complex K. Hill Dict.
needle/awl subsistence tool ōr' (poss) awl inheritance *7opi Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 92 only second syllable??? Or p > w > 0 other complex K. Hill Dict.
paddle/oar remo remo transport missing missing
pestle pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor mão de pilão subsistence tool pāhu't pestle inheritance *paha Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 1085 with -wut increment other complex K. Hill Dict.
pinole food hakwei'č pinole with chia unique other complex K. Hill Dict.
pipe for tobacco pipa cachimbo other ah-we'-kah pipe inheritance *wika Takic also in Gabrielino other complex Merriam 48:181
pitch food ur'-hant resin or pitch inheritance *salaC Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 1634 other complex Merriam 48:181
pot olla, pote panela, vasilha subsistence tool wełtj, pahat dish, cup, bowl, little round pot, cooking vessel inheritance *pasa(-ta) Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 1706 other complex K. Hill Dict.
quiver subsistence tool aht-too-kah quiver inheritance *tuka/i Uto-Aztecan Hill/Miller tu-11 'carry on back' other complex Merriam 48:179
rattle matraca, maraca marico, chocalho culture-mythology ājt rattle (tortoise shell) inheritance *(pa)-7aya-la Cupan Stubbs 2422 but in 'rattle' meaning onlyTakic other complex K. Hill Dict.
red paint culture-mythology u:ha:t (H) same as Gab oyi:', but in "S." inheritance *osa Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 711; CHM 48:175 shu-reen'-kah oosh-niv 'red paint' other complex Hill Harrington notes
salt sal sal food čuka't salt semantic shift *coka Uto-Aztecan Hill/Miller tso-03 'sour' other complex K. Hill Dict.
seed beater subsistence tool chū-wi-hŏt, chow-wē-hwat seed paddle unique other complex Merriam 48:183
clothing ropa roupa culture-mythology havy7 (poss) clothes inheritance *ha-pyt Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 144; absolutive is -t, "blanket" in Merriam 48:173 other complex K. Hill Dict.
sinew-backed bow subsistence tool missing missing
skirt falda, saya, fustan, pollera saia culture-material nowt' skirt formerly worn by women inheritance *nawi Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 485 other complex Merriam 48:173
snare subsistence tool mĕr'-tah kin'-e-what snare unique phrase Merriam 48:179
song (generic) canción, canto canção culture-mythology čāç song inheritance *cha-ch Takic Hill/Miller tsa-17 other complex K. Hill Dict.
spear lanza lança subsistence tool nŭ-cher kin'-ne-what spear for hunting unique other complex Merriam 48:179
stirring stick food missing missing
rope/string mecate, cuerda, soga corda culture wičua't string inheritance *wik-tu7a Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 1843 other complex K. Hill Dict.
bag, sack culture-material taŋat sack inheritance *tanga Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 111 other complex K. Hill Dict.
string of shell money other ŋyçka' beads, ceremonial beads unknown maybe related to Cupeno nengu7ish 'rich'???CHM has oor'-kah pwah'-kak, oor'r-kah 'wampum. Indian money' 48:173 other complex
sugarcane/sugar azúcar, caña de azúcar açucar (de cana) acculturation pīhç sugar, sweet semantic shift *pisa(L) Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 2259 other complex K. Hill Dict.
sweathouse other hujačit sweathouse unknown only Serran other complex K. Hill Dict.
tell history culture-mythology āv tell about, recount inheritance *7awa Californian (Takic plus Tubatulabal) Stubbs 2011 1873a simplex root K. Hill Dict.
cremate culture-mythology mah-ho'-nā'm tahCH'-tum cremation (plural JHH) unique phrase Merriam 48:191
tobacco (native) narcotics pīvt tobacco inheritance *pipaC Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 2348 other complex K. Hill Dict.
tule boat transport missing missing other complex
white paint culture-mythology tyvič, tyvit white clay, lime inheritance *typiC Takic Stubbs 2011 758 nice reflex with vowel retained other complex K. Hill Dict.
winnowing basket culture-material čipat shallow, round basket inheritance *cippat Takic Stubbs 2011 122, but could this be loan from Cahuilla? Do we expect chipt? ; CHM hooe-hooe-kin-ne-hwat 48:183 other complex
wood tray subsistence tool missing missing
shoes zapatos sapatos dress waqāt shoes inheritance waCci(kaC0 Northern Uto-Aztecan Stubbs 2011 1955 has parens around the first C, curse excel other complex K. Hill Dict.
medicine narcotics tiyr'ant medicine unique other omplex K. Hill Dict.
cradleboard culture-material ah-pah'-tom baby basket unique this is a paha basket word that's also with 'bottle' other complex Merriam 48:183
policeman polícia policía acculturation wyčy:ka7 police officer unique analysis uncertain, root looks like 'man' to me JHH other complex K. Hill Dict.
soldier soldado soldado acculturation suldādu7 soldier loan Spanish WW %soldado simplex K. Hill Dict.
corn food missing missing
beans food rihōl beans loan Spanish WW %frijol simplex K. Hill Dict.
cat gato gato acculturation gātu7 cat loan Spanish WW %gato also kiri7 simplex K. Hill Dict.
gun arma, escopeta espingarda, fusil acculturation pārčqt gun unique on pat- like Cu, Lu derived, other complex K. Hill Dict.
hat sombero chapéu dress kumua7t hat loan Yokuts Serran only other complex K. Hill Dict.
clapper acculturation pă-how'-it music sticks, clapper sticks unknown looks a bit like 'big clown'??? other complex Merriam 48:191
thatch/roof crisneja palha, caraná culture-material missing
rope/string mecate, cuerda, soga corda culture qai-kwt Poss -ku7 “rope” unknown
bottom grinding stone manufacture pa:hu “bedrock mortar” loan direction unknown R&E2000:420
digging stick subsistence tool -hunaqan "ceremonial staff" inheritance R&E2000:62
winnow aventar, tirar (sementes) joeirar manufacture missing
top grinding stone metate, mano; piedra de moler metate, mano manufacture pa:hu7t “pestle” loan direction unknown
boomerang/throwing stick (generic) subsistence tool missing
spearthrower subsistence tool Suma:n-t bow, arrow, bow-and-arrow inheritance
spear lanza lança subsistence tool hu:-T “arrow” inheritance
house other ki:-c inheritance


Grammatical Data (226)
Category Grammatical Feature Grammatical Feature: Notes Feature Status Grammatical Notes Source Etymology Notes General Notes Phylogenetic Code
Phonology - Segmental Pre-/post-nasalized stops Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.
Phonology - Segmental Glottalized/ejective consonants Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative] no
Phonology - Segmental Palatalized stops Phonemic contrast
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic vowel length Does the language have long and short vowels?
Phonology - Segmental Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels
Phonology - Segmental Complex onsets Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme
Phonology - Segmental No codas *(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]
Phonology - Segmental Word-final coda required Do all syllables end in a consonant?
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive tones Note how many contrastive tones no
Phonology - Suprasegmental Contrastive stress Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments
Phonology - Suprasegmental Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?
Phonology - Suprasegmental Vowel harmony
Morphology - General Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb) Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]
Morphology - General Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes Stem change, tone no
Morphology - General Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes) Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word yes
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing There are many more prefixes than suffixes no
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing There are many more suffixes than prefixes no
Morphology - General Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different yes
Morphology - General Reduplication: full The full morpheme is reduplicated yes
Morphology - General Reduplication: partial Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated yes
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive NN compounding Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV serialization (without compounding) Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Productive VV compounding Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs Auxiliary verb(s) There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs
Morphology - Incorporation Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process Verb contains nominal segment
Morphology - Incorporation Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classes/genders Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP no
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Number of noun classes/genders Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders 0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders) Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates Masculine, feminine, neuter
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system Animate/inanimate, human/non-human
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification "Repeater" classifiers Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals) Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals no
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'
Nominal Categories - Number Singular number may be marked on the noun Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups
Nominal Categories - Number Plural affix on noun yes
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun no
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked by reduplication of noun no
Nominal Categories - Number Plural word/clitic no
Nominal Categories - Number Plural marked on human or animate nouns only no
Nominal Categories - Number Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns yes
Nominal Categories - Number Unique associative plural marker e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them' yes
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Definite or specific articles Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only yes
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Indefinite or non-specific article or marker no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound) no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number) Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system 3
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3sg pronouns no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 3pl pronouns no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Formal/informal distinction in pronouns Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories Reflexive pronouns e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Adpositions mark core NPs Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: number of cases Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun 5
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: symmetrical All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity) yes
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: asymmetrical Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates no
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: suffix or postpositional clitic yes
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: prefix or prepositional clitic
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: infix or inpositional clitic
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: stem change
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: tone
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions Case: comitative = instrumental Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument' no
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-2 At least some part of the system involves base-2 no
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-5 At least some part of the system involves base-5 no
Nominal Categories - Numerals Base-10 At least some part of the system involves base-10 yes
Nominal Categories - Numerals Other base (specify) 4, 20, etc. no
Nominal Categories - Numerals Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5 e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 5 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no
Nominal Categories - Numerals Numerals do not go above 10 'Many' or some other non-exact term used no
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival
Nominal Categories - Other nominal Person inflection on non-verbal predicates i.e. nominal or adjectival
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N alienable/inalienable? yes
Nominal Syntax - Possession Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N alienable/inalienable? no
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent e.g. 'the boy-'s dog' yes
Nominal Syntax - Possession Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head e.g. 'the boy his-dog' yes
Nominal Syntax - Possession Possessive classifiers There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of inalienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Morphological marking of alienable possession Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of kin terms 'my-father' but *father
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal) 'my-leg' but *leg
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Underived adjectives There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival) There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer) There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song) There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb
Nominal Syntax - Derivation Productive verbalizing morphology There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective
Nominal Syntax - Other NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently 'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary' no
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated past marker(s) Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. distant vs. recent past no
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference e.g. imminent vs. distant future
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Dedicated future or non-past marker(s) yes
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: prefix no
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: suffix yes
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut no
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense Tense-aspect suppletion no
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood yes
Verbal Categories - Mood Polite imperative morpheme There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)
Verbal Categories - Mood Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses yes
Verbal Categories - Mood Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative) as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: affix on verb Inflectional marking of capacity to do something
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: verbal construction
Verbal Categories - Mood Situational possibility: other marking yes
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: affix on verb Modal expressing hypothesis
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: verbal construction
Verbal Categories - Mood Epistemic possibility: other marking yes
Verbal Categories - Mood Marking of expected/unexpected action or result There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal frustrative Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")
Verbal Categories - Mood Verbal habitual Modal expressing habituality
Verbal Categories - Mood Apprehensive construction There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'
Verbal Categories - Mood Reality status marking on verbs There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'
Verbal Categories - Mood Affect markers (positive/negative) Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative
Verbal Categories - Directionals Directional elements affixed to the verb There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized visual Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized nonvisual Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized inferential Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized reportive Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Grammaticalized quotative Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Other evidential Any other evidential values not represented above
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic yes
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: part of tense system Includes portmanteau morphs no
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: separate particle no
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality Evidentiality: modal morpheme no
Verbal Categories - Verbal number Verbal number suppletion yes
Verbal Categories - Other Social interaction markers Note the type of interaction
Word Order No fixed basic constituent order no
Word Order VS in intransitive clauses Verb precedes subject no
Word Order VS in transitive clauses
Word Order VO in transitive clauses Verb precedes object
Word Order OS in transitive clauses Object precedes subject
Word Order Preposition-Noun no
Word Order Noun-Postposition or case suffix yes
Word Order Gen-Noun Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book) yes
Word Order Noun-Gen Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John') no
Word Order Adj-Noun Adjective precedes the noun no
Word Order Noun-Adj Adjective follows the noun yes
Word Order Dem-Noun yes
Word Order Noun-Dem no
Word Order Num-Noun
Word Order Noun-Num
Word Order Noun-Rel Relative clause follows noun that it modifies yes
Word Order Rel-Noun Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies no
Word Order Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative) e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away') no
Word Order Relative clause is correlative or adjoined e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat' no
Word Order Question word is clause initial 'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects yes
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep) no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative yes
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive yes, no, mixed, other no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3) no
Simple Clauses - Alignment Alignment of verbal person-marking: split More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc. no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option) no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option) no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc. yes
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking on intransitive verbs Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs Transitive verbs take object (P) markers no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects 3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system yes
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking 3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects 3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system yes
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Number can be marked separately from person on the verb Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking Gender distinguished in verbal person markers For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: indirect object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: double object In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice Ditransitive constructions: secondary object In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal. no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reflexive: dedicated morpheme Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive. no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Passive Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Antipassive Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing Other intransitivizing morphology There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: benefactive Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Applicative: other Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: prefix Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: suffix Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: serial verb or analytical construction Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy' Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Causative: dedicated sociative Indicates that causer participates in event
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence) There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a preposed element Clausal negator is a preposed element
Simple Clauses - Negation Clausal negator is a postposed element Clausal negator is a postposed element
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: affix Negatives: affix
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: particle Negatives: particle yes
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: auxiliary verb Negatives: auxiliary verb
Simple Clauses - Negation Negatives: double Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'
Simple Clauses - Negation Distinct negative expression 'I don't know' Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: interrogative particle Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle yes
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: verb morphology Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology no
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: word order Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) no
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Polar questions: intonation only Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only no
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives Content questions: word order differs from declaratives Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: verbal Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position yes
Simple Clauses - Predication Predicate adjectives: nominal Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position yes
Simple Clauses - Predication Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all) yes
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)
Simple Clauses - Predication Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.
Simple Clauses - Predication Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause
Simple Clauses - Predication Relativizer is a verbal affix
Simple Clauses - Predication Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions Grammaticalized verbal desiderative Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)
Simple Clauses - Other Clause chaining Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked switch-reference system There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined
Simple Clauses - Other Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence


Ethnographic Information
Current Population (speakers) Former Population Estimate Subsistence Preference Density Sedentism Ecotome Marriage Pattern Notes Source
medium HG low seasonal no