Hunter-Gatherer Language Database

Western Mono

Family: Uto-Aztecan
Region: North America
ISO 639-3: mnr
Location: 37.19°, -119.35°
Notes
Features: Basic Vocabulary
Flora Fauna Vocabulary
Cultural Vocabulary
Grammatical Data
Ethnographic Information

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Basic Vocabulary (185)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Etymology Code	Source
1pl.excl	nosotros (exclusivo)	nós (exclusivo)	grammar	nyyqwa		inheritance
1pl.incl	nosotros (inclusivo)	nós (inclusivo)	grammar	taaqwa		inheritance
1sg	yo	eu	grammar	nyy/		inheritance
2pl	ustedes	vocês	grammar	yy/qwa (you pl.)		inheritance
2sg	xx	xx	grammar	7y:		inheritance
3pl	ellos/ellas	eles/elas	grammar	mahu/wY/		inheritance
3sg	el/ella	ele/ela	grammar	ihu,		inheritance
above	encima, arriba	acima	location	tu/gupa, tugupataa/		inheritance	Bethel et al 1993
again	de nuevo, otra vez	de novo	grammar	pina/sU	cap vowel voiceless	inheritance
all	todo	todos	other	nasi/(7)mi/-tU		unknown
and	y	e	grammar	jai/sI; jaisidija "and then"		loan
ankle	tobillo	tornozelo	body	ta7wizo/go		inheritance
armpit	axila, sobaco	axila	body	ahaqo/tsI		loan
ash	ceniza(s)	cinzas	environment	asiya/by/, esiya/by/, siya/by/		inheritance
at	en, a	em, a	location	-wee		unknown
back	espalda	costas	body	pi/qO “lower back”		inheritance
bad	mal	mal	quality	azaani-tU “bad”;		inheritance
belly	barriga	barriga	body	qo/hi “stomach”		inheritance
below	abajo, debajo	abaixo	location	-duhe "under"		inheritance
big	grande	grande	quality	paba/-tU, papaaba/-tU		inheritance
bite	morder	morder	body	ky/jy/-		inheritance
black	negro	preto	colour	tumo7anigi-, tumu7anigi- “to be black”		inheritance
blood	sangre	sangue	body	paa/pI		inheritance
blow	soplar	soprar	body	puuhi-		inheritance
boil/pimple	espinilla, granos	espinha, borbulha	body	munabi/7wa “pimples”;		inheritance
bone	hueso	osso	body	o/ho		inheritance
breast	pecho, seno	peito	body	pizi/7		inheritance
breathe	respirar	respirar	body	suwaqa-		inheritance
burn	quemar	queimar	environment	ty/nai-		inheritance
chew	masticar, mascar	mastigar	body	ky/tsoho-		inheritance
child	niño, niña	criança	human	tuwapy/7		inheritance
climb	subir	subir	motion	maaba- (go uphill, mountains, etc.),		unique
cloud	nube	nuvem	environment	too/pE		unknown
cold	frío	frio	quality	y/zy/7y/- “to be cold”;		inheritance
come	venir	vir	motion	-ki, kima-H124		inheritance
cook	cocinar	cozinhar	impact	sawa- (by boiling)		inheritance
correct/true	verdad, de veras	verdade	quality	tybizitusU “it's true”		unknown
count	contar	contar	mental	tatsiywiy-		unknown
cry	llorar	chorar	mental	yaga-		inheritance
cut/hack	cortar	cortar	impact	wi/qobi- “chop up”,		inheritance
day	día	dia	time	tabe-wano “in the daytime”		inheritance
die/be dead	morir	morrer	state	edaa-		unknown
dig	cavar	cavar	impact	ty/hoowi-;		unknown
dingo/wolf			fauna	to7a/pE “wolf”		loan direction unknown
dirty	sucio	sujo	quality	totsa/bi “dirty one”		inheritance
dream	soñar	sonhar	mental	nosidabi-		inheritance
drink	beber, tomar	beber	body	hibi-		inheritance
dry	seco	seco	quality	pasa- “to be dry”		inheritance
dull/blunt	sin filo, mocho, desafilado, embotado, romo	maçante, desamolado, não afiado	quality	tamahoi/by “object with a dull point”		inheritance
dust	polvo	poeira	environment	kutusiby/		inheritance
ear	oreja	orelha	body	na/qa(7)		inheritance
earth/soil	tierra	terra	environment	ty/bi/pY		inheritance
eat	comer	comer	body	ty/ka-		inheritance
egg	huevo	ovo	fauna	no/yo		inheritance
eye	ojo	olho	body	pu/sI		loan
faeces	heces, mierda, excremento, estiércol	fezes	body	kwida/pY/		inheritance
fall	caer	cair	motion	wi/7i-		inheritance
far	lejos	longe	quality	qwena/7a,		unknown
fat/grease	grasa	gordura	body	juhu/bi,		inheritance
father	padre, papá	pai	kinship	nawa		inheritance
fear	miedo	medo	mental	syjee-		inheritance
feather	pluma	pena	fauna	qa/sA		inheritance
fire	fuego	fogo	environment	qo/sO,		inheritance
fish	xx	xx	fauna	pa/kwi		inheritance
flow	fluir	fluir	motion	huu-		loan
flower	flor	flor	environment	hy/biga/7		inheritance
fly	volar	voar	motion	yotsi-		inheritance
fog	niebla, neblina	nevoeira, bruma, neblina	environment	pagy/na/pE		inheritance
foot	pie	pé	body	ky/ky/		inheritance
fruit	fruta	fruta	flora	tu/kU “berries, fruit”		unknown
good	bueno	bom	quality	tsau		inheritance
grow	crecer	crescer	state	naa-		inheritance
hair (of head)	cabello	cabelo	body	woo/pI “head hair”		inheritance
hand	mano	mão	body	ma/ya;		inheritance
head	cabeza	cabeça	body	woo		unknown
hear	oír	ouvir	mental	naqa-		inheritance
heavy	pesado	pesado	quality	na7ny/kwy/-		inheritance
hide	esconder	esconder	motion	na7waazi- “hide from”, waziti/gi/-		inheritance
hit	golpear, pegar	bater	impact	tabi- “to strike”		inheritance
hold	correr, asegurar, sostener	segurar	other	matsoga- “clench in one's hand”		inheritance
how?	como	como	grammar	hani/7, hani7i/-tU		inheritance
if	si	se	grammar			missing
in/inside	dentro, adentro	dentro	location	-wee		unknown
intestines	intestinos	intestinos	body	sihi		inheritance
itch	hormiguear, sentir comezón	coçar	body	pihadagi- (2) “to be itchy”		inheritance
kill	matar	matar	impact	patsa-		inheritance
know/be knowledgeable	saber, conecer	saber, conhecer	mental	sUtaby/hi-, sytaby/hi		unknown
lake	lago	lago	environment	patsija/tA		loan
laugh	reír	rir	mental	jawi-		inheritance
leaf	hoja	folha	environment	pi/sI		inheritance
left/left hand	izquierdo	esquerdo	location/body	ohina-qwety/		inheritance
leg/foot	pierna	perna	body	hu/qA		inheritance
lie down	acostarse, echarse	deitar	motion	habi-		inheritance
lightning	rayo, relámpago	relampago	environment	aqakwitsi7i		inheritance
live/be alive	vivir	viver, morar	body	qati/-		inheritance
liver	hígado	figado	body	ny/wy/		inheritance
long	largo	comprido, longo	quality	y/dy/-tU		loan direction unknown
louse	piollo, piojo	piolho	fauna	pusi/7a “lice”		inheritance
lung	pulmón	pulmão	body	so/no		inheritance
man/male	hombre	homem	human	na/na		loan
meat/flesh	carne	carne	fauna	tu/kU ;		inheritance
moon	luna	lua	environment	tadamy/7a, tadawy/7a		inheritance
mother	madre, mamá	mãe	kinship	piya		inheritance
mouth	boca	boca	body	ty/pE		inheritance
name	nombre	nome	human	nani/yan		inheritance
nape	base del cuello, nuca	nuca	body			missing
near/close	cerca de	perto	quality	-baa,		inheritance
neck	cuello	pescoço	body	ku/tA		inheritance
new	nuevo	novo	quality	pydytypY		inheritance
night	noche	noite	time	togawa/no “night-time”		inheritance
no/not	no	não	grammar	qa/du7		inheritance
nose	nariz	nariz	body	mu/bi		inheritance
old	viejo	velho	quality	muu7atsiyee- “to become old”;		inheritance
one	uno	um	number	sy/my/7		inheritance
open/uncover	abrir	abrir	other	tsitaagi- (using hands)		unknown
other	otro	outro	grammar	ky/ma7a/sU “another”		inheritance
pain/painful/sick	dolor, doloroso, enfermo	dor, doloroso, doente	body	qama- “to be sick”		inheritance
person/human being	persona	pessoa	human	nyymY “Indian”		inheritance
pound/beat	machacar, golpear	bater	impact	tabi “to pound”		inheritance
rain	lluvia	chuva	environment	tyy/kwa/pE		inheritance
red	rojo	vermelho	colour	aqabanagi-		inheritance
right/right hand	derecha	direita	location/body	tsaunaqwety “right side”		inheritance
road/path	camino	caminho	manufacture	nyy/my/boyo “path”, po/yo “road”		inheritance
root	raíz	raiz	flora	ty/dy/na, ty/dy/na/pY/		inheritance
rotten	podrido	podre	quality	pihi-		inheritance
sand	arena	areia	environment	pasiya/pY/		inheritance
say	decir	dizer	mental	inee- “say, tell”		inheritance
scratch	rascar	rasgar	impact	tsabo7i-		unknown
see	ver	ver	mental	poni-, puni-		inheritance
sharp	afilado, filudo, filoso	afiado	quality	ky/waa/by/ :object with a sharp edge”		inheritance
shoot	tirar, disparar, balear	atirar	impact	kwati-, qwati- (gun, arrow, spear)		inheritance
short	corto	curto	quality	tapotsitsi7ini/-tU “very short”		loan direction unknown
shoulder	hombro	ombro	body	tee/by/		loan
shy/ashamed	tímido, vergonzoso	timido, com vergonha	mental	nasukwai(7i)-		inheritance
sit	sentar(se)	sentar	state	qaty/-		inheritance
skin	piel	pele	body	py/hy/		inheritance
sky	cielo	céu	environment			missing
sleep	dormir	dormir	body	y/wi-		inheritance
small	pequeño	pequeno	quality	inotsitsi7i/-tU, -tsi7		unknown
smoke	humo	fumaça	environment	kuhita7i- “to be smokey”		inheritance
sniff/smell	olfatear, oler	cheirar	body	egwi-		loan into protolanguage, direction unknown
spit	escupir	cuspir	body	tuhi-		loan into protolanguage, direction unknown
split	partir, dividir	rachar, dividir, partir	impact	pytyhi-,		unknown
squeeze	estrujar, exprimir	espremer	impact	wi/pizizihi-		inheritance
stab/pierce	apuñalar, acuchillar	apunhalar	impact	tona- “stick w/ sharp object”		inheritance
stand	estar de pié	ficar em pé	state	wy/ny/-		inheritance
star	estrella	estrela	environment	tazino/pY/		inheritance
steal	robar	roubar	other	noqaga-, noqoga-		unique
stick/wood	palo	pau, vara	flora	kudu/' “stick”		inheritance
stone	piedra	pedra	environment	typi		inheritance
suck	chupar	chupar	body	pitsi-		inheritance
sweat	sudar	suor, suar	body	muusa7i-, muusu7i-		loan
swell	hincharse	inchar	body	pawa- “to swell”		inheritance
swim	nadar	nadar	motion	pahabi-		inheritance
tail	cola, rabo	rabo	body	kwazi		inheritance
that	ese/esa	esse	grammar	mahu “that one”		inheritance
thick	grueso, gordo, espeso	grosso	quality	wogo/-tU		inheritance
thin	delgado	fino	quality	ty/gi/by/ “skinny (one)”;		unknown
think	pensar	pensar	mental	sunawi- “to think”		inheritance
this	este/esta	este	grammar	i/hu,		inheritance
three	tres	tres	number	pahi/		inheritance
throat	garganta	garganta	body	no/do		inheritance
throw	tirar, lanzar	atirar, jogar	impact	takwy/na7i-		inheritance
thunder	truenos	trovão	environment	toojaga-		inheritance
tie up/fasten	atar, amarrar	amarrar	impact	tsaky/na- “to tie up”		inheritance
tongue	lengua	lingua	body	e/go		inheritance
tooth	diente	dente	body	ta/wa		inheritance
turn	girar, volter, torcer	virar	other	mi/naa-		inheritance
two	dos	dois	number	waha/-i		inheritance
vomit	vomitar	vomitar	body	o7i-		inheritance
walk	caminar, andar	andar	motion	ny/wi-, -moo-		inheritance
water	agua	agua	environment	pa/ya		inheritance
wet	mojado	molhado	quality	payaga- “get wet”		unique
what?	que, qué	que	grammar	hii/pI/		inheritance
when?	cuando	quando	grammar	hino7o (is this ? JHH)		inheritance
where?	donde	onde	grammar	hau/tI/ (direction),		unique
white	blanco	branco	colour	tutsidaagi-		inheritance
who?	quien, quién	quem	grammar	ha/ge, haqaa/		inheritance
wife	esposa	esposa	kinship	nody/kwA		loan
wind	viento	vento	environment	hy/kwa/pE; wi- “by the wind”		inheritance
wing	ala	asa	body	qa/sA		inheritance
woman/female	mujer	mulher	human	hyy/pI		inheritance
work	trabajar	trabalhar	other	tawahani7i-		loan
yawn	bostezar	bocejar	body	na7y/dawy/-		inheritance
yellow	amarillo	amarelo	colour	ohobanagi-		inheritance


1pl.excl
1pl.incl
1sg
2pl
2sg
3pl
3sg
above
again
all
and
ankle
armpit
ash
at
back
bad
belly
below
big
bite
black
blood
blow
boil/pimple
bone
breast
breathe
burn
chew
child
climb
cloud
cold
come
cook
correct/true
count
cry
cut/hack
day
die/be dead
dig
dingo/wolf
dirty
dream
drink
dry
dull/blunt
dust
ear
earth/soil
eat
egg
eye
faeces
fall
far
fat/grease
father
fear
feather
fire
fish
flow
flower
fly
fog
foot
fruit
good
grow
hair (of head)
hand
head
hear
heavy
hide
hit
hold
how?
if
in/inside
intestines
itch
kill
know/be knowledgeable
lake
laugh
leaf
left/left hand
leg/foot
lie down
lightning
live/be alive
liver
long
louse
lung
man/male
meat/flesh
moon
mother
mouth
name
nape
near/close
neck
new
night
no/not
nose
old
one
open/uncover
other
pain/painful/sick
person/human being
pound/beat
rain
red
right/right hand
road/path
root
rotten
sand
say
scratch
see
sharp
shoot
short
shoulder
shy/ashamed
sit
skin
sky
sleep
small
smoke
sniff/smell
spit
split
squeeze
stab/pierce
stand
star
steal
stick/wood
stone
suck
sweat
swell
swim
tail
that
thick
thin
think
this
three
throat
throw
thunder
tie up/fasten
tongue
tooth
turn
two
vomit
walk
water
wet
what?
when?
where?
white
who?
wife
wind
wing
woman/female
work
yawn
yellow

Showing 1 to 185 of 185 entries

Flora Fauna Vocabulary (130)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Psychotropic Notes	Traded	Trade Notes	Distribution	Habitat	Dangerous	Ethnobiology Notes	Species Notes	General Notes

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Linnean Name	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Etymology Notes	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Range of Term	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Classifier	Classifier Notes	Hypernym	Source	Association with Social Categories	Ritual/Mythologically Significant	Ritual Notes	Food Source	Food Notes	Medicinal	Medicinal Notes	How Collected	Who Collects	How Prepared	Psychotropic	Traded	Trade Notes	Dangerous
abalone			flora-fauna	Haliotis spp.	puhiGede		abalone shell	unique				Maybe a compound: Green-money (from *koCti)			same	phrase	puhi “green”?? remainder unanalyzable				Bethel et al.:156	no info	2		1		1	“ground up and used as a poison”	trade	men	no info	0	1	used as money	no
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna	Formicidae	soo'yabe		ants	unique							narrower (seems to be plural only)	underived	stem may be complex				Bethel et al.:187	no info	0		0		no info		no info	N/A	no info	0	0		no
ant (generic)	hormiga	formiga	flora-fauna		wowa/7			unknown
antelope			flora-fauna	Antilocapra americana	soyonO (Bethel),soiyoti (Gayton 2:223) more like Merriam's, fix		Antelope (Antilocapra americana) in Merriam, “elk” in Bethel	loan			Yokuts	Chukchansi soi'-yōl; se'-yōl, Wikchamni soi-ut; Yowlumne soi'-al' soi'-ul' soi'-yul	WW	%sok	same	underived					Merriam 59:69; Bethel et al. 186	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
badger			flora-fauna	Taxidea taxus	Hoo-nă “digger” NB; hoo'-nah		badger	inheritance	*huLa	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 132 (2008:59), he needs to move the southern “wolf” words at S 2503 to this etymology			same	underived					Merriam 59:67	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	pelt	0	0		yes
bald eagle			flora-fauna	Haliaeetus leucocephalus	kwin'-nah a-bah hu-ah-kwe	kwi'na' pakwi (pahuupu'i “dive”???	Bald Eagle “White-headed Eagle”	unique	kwi'na pa:-kɨyu	Proto-Numic		Stubbs 717b, 864 (2008); may be a neologism (Northern Paiute has white-head-eagle)			same	phrase	eagle fish ?				Merriam 59:71	a totem animal in Moiety II (Kroeber 1925:588)	1	totem animal	2		no info		no info	no info	no info	0	1	chiefs could sell eagle down, eagle leg + claw, but of Bald Eagle???	no
band-tail pigeon			flora-fauna	Patagioenas fasciata	sowi, sowi'		pigeon	loan			Yokuts	Chukchansi so'-win, Yowlumne saw'-win', , Gashowu sho'-win. BUT -- note Tohono O'odham ho:hi “mourning dove” which suggests UA source. Sound-imitative and problematic.			same	underived	must be originally onomatopoeic		-wi animal is old classifier but not productive in Mono	tsiipa “bird”	Bethel et al.:187	no info	0		1	everybody ate Gayton 2:224	no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0	live pigeons kept in cages for decoys were sold (pigeons caught for food not sold) (Gayton 2:221)	no
bat	murciélago	morcego	flora-fauna	Chiroptera spp	ho'nobi		bat (mammal)	inheritance	*ho'napi	Western + Central Numic		Stubbs 2008:58) (126)			same	other complex	ho'no-pi bat-CL	-pi	-pi, -pɨ classifiers are "individuating"; I speculate that nouns with no classifier sometimes indicate simply "substance" (as seeds-0 vs. plant -pi/-pɨ		Bethel et al.:33	no info	0		1		no info		no info	no info	no info	0	0		no
beaver			flora-fauna	Castor	pazuukU		beaver	loan			Sierra Miwok	Sierra Miwok cukuH “dog” (see Callaghan 2001 who thinks it's an old loan all over), note Proto-Wintun *cuku plus pa:- “water”			same	phrase	water-dog				Bethel et al.:136	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0	pelts probably traded	no
beetle			flora-fauna	Coleoptera spp	kă'-ah; kŭ-ah		Beetle, 13-line June Bug	inheritance	*ku'a	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan		Perhaps should be coded as semantic shift; S *ku'a “wormy”, attested in Stubbs only in Takic			narrower (specific kind of beetle)	underived					Merriam 59:83	no info	2		0		no info		no info	N/A	no info	0	0		no
big round tule			flora-fauna	Schoenoplectus acutus	missing	(saib'		missing								missing					Gayton 2:260 tule floor mat		2		1		2					0	0		no
big skunk			flora-fauna	Mephitis mephitis	pohitA		skunk	inheritance	*po(C)ni	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 1983 (2008:275); problematic, may be from “stink” verb			same	underived					Bethel et al.:150	no info	2		2		no info		hunted	men	pelt	0	0		no
big wolf (gray wolf)			flora-fauna	Canis lupus	to'apE		Timber wolf	inheritance	*tu'apa	Proto-Numic		Stubbs 2503 (2008:335); in fact I don't think this set is regular, looks like it's been loaned around, but can't identify a source yet			same	underived					Bethel et al.:239	no info	1	Coyote's younger brother in myth times	2		no info		no info	no info	no info	0	0		yes
bighorn sheep			flora-fauna	Ovis canadensis	ne-vav'-ve tŭ-hŭt “snow deer”	nɨbabi tihitA	Bighorn sheep	unique				neologism with PNUA form for “snow”, Numic word for “deer”			same	phrase					Merriam 59:67 CHECK	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		tsiipa'		bird	inheritance		Uto-Aztecan		Note Yerington hootseba “bird”; Tarahumara cipi “small bird sp.”; Miller put hootseba together with 205c hutti/hutu (Stubs 2008:67). Probably sound-imitative, may not have a good etymology			narrower ( I'm pretty sure this doesn't include large raptors, vulture, condor)	underived					Bethel et al.:254		0		0	most birds hunted for food, feathers also used	0		hunted	men		0	0	birds kept as pets bought and sold; regarded as somewhat supernatural, guardian spirits, “tuk” (life) of owner	no
bird	pajaro, ave	passaro	flora-fauna		tsiipa/7			loan direction unknown
black ant			flora-fauna	Camponotus pennsylvanicus/Lasius niger	ko'-kon-noi; waw-ko'-noi-i (in hollow trees & logs)		black ant	loan			Yokuts	Chukchansi kah'-kow “red ant”; Yowlumne kah-kow (big hairy stinging red ant)			same	underived					Merriam 59:83	no info	2		0		no info		no info	N/A	no info	0	0		no
black bear			flora-fauna	Ursus americanus	wah-san'-nu; (cinnamon); wah-să-nah		black bear	unique							same	underived					Bethel et al.	no info	1	Brown Bear took Jimsonweed so is gentle; bear shamanism	2		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		yes
black-tail Jackrabbit			flora-fauna	Lepus californicus	qamO		jackrabbit	inheritance	*kaNmu	Proto-Numic		Stubbs 1710 (2008:243)			same	underived					Bethel et al.:162	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0	rabbit skins from E. Mono (Spier 1978:427)	no
blackberry			flora-fauna	Rubus ursinus	moonoi		blackberries (local name) (possible twinberries, Lonicera involucrata)	unique							same	unknown	simplex				Bethel et al.:77		2		1		2					0	0		no
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna	Diptera	muwibi		housefly	inheritance	muwi-/muCpi/	Proto-Numic		Stubbs 887 (2008:151)			same	derived		-pi			Bethel et al.:81	no info	0		0		no		N/A	N/A	N/A	0	0		no
blowfly/housefly	mosca	mosca	flora-fauna		muwi/bi			loan into protolanguage, direction unknown
blue grouse			flora-fauna	Dendrogapus?	qahɨ		grouse	inheritance	*kaka “quail, grouse”	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan (Numic “grouse”, Takic “quail”)		I'm not sure about this -- Numic is good, but may not go with Takic (Stubbs 1702a (2008:241); note TS kahu and wonder why different from “quail”			same	underived	ultimately onomatopoeic but sound change has obscured			tsiipa “bird”	Bethel et al.:161	no info	0		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
bobcat, lynx			flora-fauna	Lynx rufus	tonoowi'		bobcat	loan			Yokuts	Proto-NimYokuts *t'ungul (Golla 1964:66); this is a very widespread loan but clearly is in Proto-Yokutsan (check Nichols)	WW	%talom	same	derived		-wi???	-wi is an old animal classifier, rare in Mono		Bethel et al.:234	totem in Pakwihu (II) moiety (Gifford p. 37)	1		2		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
butterfly, moth	mariposa	borboleta	flora-fauna	Lepidoptera	wa'napusa'		butterfly	loan			Yokuts	Chukchansi wal-lup'-soo, wal-lap'-soo; Wikchamni wal-wal (Merriam)			same	underived					Bethel et al.:280	no info	2		0		no info		no info	N/A	no info	0	0		no
California condor			flora-fauna	Gymnogyps californianus	nana'yutsi		(California) condor	unique				May be from *nana “man, male” ? plus Yokuts wits (but note nana'yuki in Word structure notes)			same	derived	Note nana'yukI “handsome young man around 25 years of age” (nana “man, male”, maybe Yokuts, maybe < naa- “to grow” ??)				Bethel et al.:89	a totem animal Gayton 2:272	1	“First man”; Condors believed to carry away people when they were asleep, taking them up into the blue sky and turning them loose in skyland (Gifford 54)	2	no one ate Gayton 2:223	no info		no info	no info	no info	0	1		no
California jay			flora-fauna	Aphelocoma californica?	tseeGo'nO		Valley blue jay (local name) (probably the scrub jay, Aphelocoma coerulescens)	unique							same	onomatopoeic	maybe from tsiko-na “tsiko-says” ??			tsiipa “bird”	Bethel et al.:252	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men		0	0		no
California woodpecker			flora-fauna	Melanerpes formicivorus?	panaatada'		woodpecker (Merriam's “California woodpecker”)	loan			unknown	words of this shape for this bird very widespread in Central California (see Troike 2010 ms.)	WW	%palaka ~ %pana(k)	same	underived					Bethel et al.:127	no info	2	scalp powerful feathers	1	old people ate (Gayton 2:223)	no info		hunted	men	no info	0	1	woodpecker scalp dance costumes sold?	no
chia			flora-fauna	Salvia columbariae	tsaatibi		Chia plant (Salvia columbariae)	unique							same	other complex	has -CL	-pi	seed is tsaatI		Bethel et al.:241	no info	1		1	In pinole gruel, as thickener in manzanita cider, as flavoring in tea	1	used to get something out of the eye	Gathered (wild but closely managed)	women	seeds dried, ground, used in pinole of all types	0	0	not documented for Mono but chia mentioned as trade item for other groups	no
chipmunk			flora-fauna	Tamias spp.	woda'		little chipmunk (lives in the valley)	inheritance	*wo'ta	Proto-Numic		Stubbs 2100 (2008:289)			same	underived					Bethel et al.	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
cliff swallow			flora-fauna	Petrochelidon pyrrhonota	isa', iza',		swallow	inheritance		Proto-Numic		Note Panamint paz'-zah-noo-pe'-dah W; Merriam 59:335; Yerington Paiute soggobbena “mudswallow”; Southern Paiute pas'-să-ro-vep' “swallow”			same	unknown	Note siGoGohi- “to slide” (as on a rock)				Bethel et al.:136		2		1		0					0	0		no
coot			flora-fauna	Fulica americana	pasaya		Mud hen	inheritance	*pa:-saya	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 217 (2008:69), unproblematic			same	derived	pa-saya water-mud.hen				Bethel et al.:130	no info	2		1	surely eaten	no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
cottontail rabbit			flora-fauna	Sylvilagus audobonii	teewa		cottontail rabbit	loan			Yokuts	Proto-NimYokuts *CHhiw (Golla 1964:61) (CH is retro ch); probably from Chukchansi tā'-ŏ (Merriam)			same	underived					Bethel et al.:209	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0	rabbit skins from E. Mono (Spier 1978:427)	no
cottonwood			flora-fauna	Populus spp.	sohopA (Gayton 1941 2:224)		Cottonwood, Populus spp.	inheritance	*sohopin	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan		Only Numic and Hopi; Stubbs 542a (2008:111)			same	underived					Merriam 59:85	no info	2		0		no info		gathered (wild)	men, women	mainly for wood	0	0		no
coyote			flora-fauna	Canis latrans	isa', iza',		Coyote	inheritance	*isa'a(N)pa	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 552 (2008:112)			same	underived					Bethel et al.:39	totem for clown lineage (Gayton 2:272), Pakwihu moiety (II) Gifford p. 37	1	Wolf's older brother in old days (Gayton 2:280); invented bedrock mortars (Gifford)	2		no info		no info	no info	no info	0	0		no
crow			flora-fauna	Corvus brachyrhynchos	sibitɨmɨ	final voiceless	crow	unique				This one is REALLY out of line -- a mistake? A euphemism? Gifford gives kaka “crow” p. 37			same	underived	must be derived somehow, too long for real simplex			tsiipa “bird”	Bethel et al.	a totem animal in Moiety I (Kroeber 1925:588)	2	totem animal	1	some totems not eaten	no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
datura			flora-fauna	Datura wrightii	tanaanibɨ		jimson weed (Datura stramonium)	loan			Yokuts	From Yokutsan verb “to be drunk”	WW	%tanai	same	other complex	has -CL	-pɨ			Bethel et al.:198	no info	1	adolescent initiation, adults also take	1		1	used as narcotic	gathered (wild)	men	decoction from plant parts	1	0		yes
deer	venado	veado, cariacu	flora-fauna		ty/hiytA			inheritance
deer, mule			flora-fauna	Odocoileus hemionus	tɨhɨtA		deer	inheritance	*tɨkɨya	Proto-Numic		Stubbs 625a (2008:121); S links to Southern *ciki “white-tail”; probably not.			same	underived					Bethel et al.:217	no info	2	Deer is a dream helper but not a totem animal (Gayton 2:282)	1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
digger pine			flora-fauna	Pinus sabiniana	tunapɨ, tunobɨ	final voiceless	digger pine tree (Pinus sabiniana)	loan			Yokuts or Miwok	Proto-NimYokuts tHo:ngash, ProtoMiwok to:n, perhaps Patwin t'uwa “pine” if so “Penutian” (Callaghan 2001)			same	derived	tuna' “nuts (generic)”	-pɨ			Bethel et al.:265	no info	2		1	pine nuts	2	pitch used for medicine	gathered (wild)	all	less desirable nut than pinyon; green cones roasted?	0	0		no
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna	Canis familiaris	pukU		pet; totem (moiety symbol or personal spirit helper); dog	inheritance	*puNku	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 38 (2008:43)			broader (includes spirit helpers of all kinds, pets in general)	underived					Bethel et al.:156	no info	0		0		no info		not collected	no info	no info	0	0		no
dog (camp, domestic)	perro	cachorro	flora-fauna		pu/kU			inheritance
dogbane			flora-fauna	Apocynum cannabinum	missing			missing								missing							2		1		2					0	0		no
dove	paloma	pomba	flora-fauna	Zenaida macrocoura	heewi'		dove	inheritance	*hayɨwi	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 675 (2008:126) with problems; take out the /o/ forms and assume the occasional /o/ is by assimilation? The -wi may be from the animal classifier			same	underived	must be originally onomatopoeic		-wi "animal" is old classifier	tsiipa “bird”	Bethel et al.	secondary totem of messenger lineage	2	totem animal; Gifford says “Mourning dove, not a totem, belonged with the Golden Eagle” p. 37	1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
duck	pato	pato, marreco	flora-fauna	Anatidae	piya, piyu		duck	inheritance	*picV	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 706a (2008:130)			same	underived					Bethel et al.: English-Mono side only	no info	0		1	surely eaten	no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
elder			flora-fauna	Sambucus	kunugibɨ		valley elderberry (bush) (Sambucus sp.)	inheritance	*kunuki-	Proto-Numic		Stubbs 180 (2008:64)			same	derived	historically has suffix -ki	-pɨ			Bethel et al.:53	name of a division of the yayanchi (Eagle) moiety (kunugechi) Gifford p. 34; chief with eagle totem came from this division	2		1	berries eaten in various preparations	1	tea	gathered (wild)	women	women make diverse preparations of berries (also used for wood)	0	0		no
elk			flora-fauna	Cervas elaphus	soyonO		elk	loan			Yokuts	Proto-NimYokuts *sohkoy (Golla 1964:61)	WW	%sok	same	underived					Bethel et al.:186	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
fish (generic)	pez	peixe	flora-fauna		pakwi		fish (general term)	inheritance	*paNkwi/pakkwi < pa:-kVyu	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 865 (2008:148)			same	underived	historically compound (*pa:-kɨyu)				Bethel et al.;126	no info	0		1		no info		fished	all	no info	0	0		no
flea	pulga	pulga	flora-fauna	Siphonaptera	mutsipI		flea	inheritance	muwi-/muCpi/	Proto-Numic		Stubbs 887 (2008:151)			same	derived	Has diminutive	-pi			Bethel et al.:80	no info	2		0		no		N/A	N/A	N/A	0	0		no
flicker			flora-fauna	Colaptes sp.	yazabana'		flicker (bird)	inheritance		Western Numic only		Northern Paiute atzabanna. This has the -banna element that is widely loaned for “woodpecker”	WW	%palaka ~ %pana(k)	same	underived	contains -pana, widespread woodpecker word. In N. Paiute adzabanna it's probably “red-banna”, but not here.			tsiipa “bird”	Bethel et al.:300	no info	2	no mention, but flicker nearly always shamanically powerful feathers	1	old people ate (Gayton 2:223)	no info		hunted	men		0	1		no
foothills yucca			flora-fauna	Yucca whipplei	missing			missing								missing							0		1		0					0	0		no
fox			flora-fauna	Vulpes, Urocyon	ha'wutsa'		fox	loan			Yokuts	Note Chukchansi ow'-wooCH (also resembles Sutbbs 557a, Fowler's *woci'a in Numic, but is not cognate	WW	%kaw	same	underived					Bethel et al.:27	no info	2		2		no info		hunted	men	skin for quivers, leggings, etc.	0	0	Eastern Mono brought fox-skin leggings to trade (Gayton 2:215)	no
frog (generic)			flora-fauna		wazaGa'		frog	inheritance	*wakaCta	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 940 (2008:157); Stubbs believes Mono metathesized the two medial consonants			same	underived					Bethel et al.:278	no info	2		2		no info		no info	no info	no info	0	0		no
golden eagle			flora-fauna	Aquila chrysaetos	kwi'na'		Golden eagle	inheritance	*kwi'na	Proto-Numic		Stubbs 717b (2008:131), looks almost like kwi'-says ?? which would explain why it isn't kwana as expected. This is actually only Western, Central Numic. Southern has kwana			same	onomatopoeic	kwi'-na' kwi'-it.says				Bethel et al.:61	Eagle was totem of chiefly families and synonymous with the office (Gayton 2:270); in Moiety I (Kroeber 1925:588) (only Northfork had moieties); Eagle gave each group its type of basket (Gifford p. 26); Gifford gives yayanchi as name of Eagle moiety “one	1	captive eagles displayed, danced over (Spier 1978:427),people paid to see them (Gifford 39), eagle down sold by chiefs, eagle leg & claw traded (Gayton)	2		1	eagle down powerful (Gayton)	hunted	men	no info (for feathers)	0	1	chiefs could sell eagle down, eagle leg + claw ; captive eagles “sold from place to place”, never killed in ceremony (Gifford p. 39; Northfork people did not buy eagles but caught there own and sold them south or to Chukchansi	no
gooseberry			flora-fauna	Ribes spp.	tabapI, taba'ya		gooseberries (Ribes sp.)	unique							same	derived	taba'ya said to be older word	-pi			Bethel et al.:193	no info	2		1		no info		gathered (wild)	all	no info	0	0		no
gopher snake, bull snake			flora-fauna	Pituophis catenifer	pasiGoqA		gopher snake	unique				Note Sh pasinkokon “water snake”, pa- clearly water here, but may be “big” in bull snake. No clue what the siN- is. There is a sinawi southern form. -Goqa is the *koNwa snake word without the Numic to-			same	derived	I think the pa- is visible to speakers, but the rest is probably unanalyzable except historically			toGoqa “snake”	Bethel et al.:130	no info	2		2		no info		no info	no info	no info	0	0		no
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna	(NA)	tɨGo'obe		grass (generic term)	unique							same	underived	tɨ- may be “earth”				Bethel et al.:216	no info	0		0		no info		Gathered (wild but closely managed)	women	seeds dried, ground, used in pinole of all types	0	0		no
grass	hierba, pasto	capim, grama	flora-fauna		ty/go7o/be;			unknown
grasshopper			flora-fauna	Caelifera	akisa', akɨsa'		grasshopper	unique	*akɨsa	Western Numic only					same	underived					Bethel et al.:4	no info	2		1	probably eaten	no info		no info	no info	no info	0	0		no
gray ground squirrel			flora-fauna	Sphermophilus sp.	Ek'-wah, ek'-wă; ekwɨ	voiceless final	Gray ground squirrel (Citellus beecheyi group) (Merriam), (golden-mantled) ground squirrel (Spermophilus lateralis) Bethel	inheritance	iCkwa/iNkwa	Proto-Numic		Stubbs 2099 (2008:289)			same	underived					Merriam 59:69; Bethel et al. 19	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
gray tree squirrel			flora-fauna	Sciurus spp.	mawi		tree squirrel (local name), western gray squirrel (Sciurus griseus)	loan			Chukchansi Yokuts	Chukchansi mow (Merriam)			same	underived					Bethel et al.:71	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
great horned owl			flora-fauna	Bubo virginianus	muhu		owl (Merriam's “Great Horned Owl”)	inheritance	*muhuN	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 1542 (2008:227), seems unproblematic although sound imitative			same	underived	ultimately onomatopoeic but very widespread cognacy suggests this is not prominently felt				Bethel et al.:78	totem of curing shaman lineage	1	familiar for curers, totem; owls assocated with redwoods, both treated with great respect (Gifford 40)	2	I'm speculating, really no info, but owls not generally eaten	no info		hunted	men	for feathers	0	1		no
grizzly bear			flora-fauna	Ursus arctos horribilis	pahabitsI	Gayton2:272 has unu'; Gifford 49 has noho (Yokuts “man”??)	bear (Merriam's “grizzly” and “bear”)	loan	*paha	Proto-Numic	unknown	I had this from Stubbs p. 59 in 2008 but this is wrong (his #135??)	WW	%paha	same (but with prototype in Grizzly)	derived	Has diminutive (respect form?)				Bethel et al.:124	totem for Bear Dancer	1	Grizzly did not take jimsonweed, why he is so mean (Gayton 2:282); bear shamanism; bears believed to carry away people and marry them giving 1/2 bear children (Gifford 51)	2		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		yes
horned toad			flora-fauna	Phrynosomatidae	toGoqatai'nupI		horned toad (lizard)	unique				Includes word for “snake”, toGoqa			same	derived	toGoqA “snake”, plus unanalyzable material	-pi			Bethel et al.231	no info	2		2		1	Merriam 59:81: “catch by tail & hold against forehead, cure headache	hunted	all	no info	0	0		no
horse	caballo	cavalho	flora-fauna	Equus caballus	qawaayu'		horse	loan			Spanish		WW	%caballo	same	underived					Bethel et al.:166	no info	0		0		no info		N/A	N/A	N/A	0	0		no
hummingbird	colibrí, picaflor (Peru)	beija-flor	flora-fauna	Trochilidae	pisIkuutu'		hummingbird	inheritance	*piti “Hummingbird, wasp”	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 1184 (2008:185) has problems. What is source of -kuutu? Note Yokutsan forms: .Yowlumne pā-mum'-koots, Palewyami pā'-mum-kutch, so Proto-Yokutsan and possible source of the kuutU' element -- a loan blend??			same	underived	perhaps onomatopoeic at some point, and also must be compound, but no analysis available			tsiipa “bird”	Bethel et al.:145	not a totem Gifford p. 37	0	although not a totem, “belonged with the golden eagle because in mythical times he talked to the people for eagle” (Gifford p. 37)	0	“too small”	no info					0	0		no
insect (generic)	insecto	insecto	flora-fauna	generic	missing			missing								missing							0		0		2					0	0		variable
junco			flora-fauna	Junco sppp	toho'notsi', toho'no		snowbird (this bird appears in winter and is grey with a black top-knot)	inheritance	*toCmo “winter”	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 2496a (2008:334); here Mono has toho'-, not attested in Stubbs, but note O'odham tohonno so I think this is OK (O'odham is huge semantic shift, means “desert, sunny place” where winter is sunny season (you see the same thing in Takic)			same	onomatopoeic	toho'-no-tsi' toho'-says-dimin.			tsiipa “bird”	Bethel et al.:232	no info	0		1	not listed in Gayton as “too small to eat”	no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
juniper			flora-fauna	Juniperus californica	wa'apɨ		Gayton 2:261 is definite that this is “Juniper”	inheritance	*wa'aC	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 415 (2008:94)			same	derived		-pɨ			Bethel et al.:279	no info	2		1		no info		gathered (wild)	all	bark for walls of traditional winter house -- probably is cedar, then, not juniper	0	0		no
louse			flora-fauna	order Phtiraptera	pusi'a		lice (head in Merriam)	inheritance	*pusi'a	Proto-Numic		Stubbs 1358a (2008:205)			same	underived	Merriam has poo-se'-av-ve with classifier				Merriam 59:71; Bethel et al. 156	no info	2		0		no		N/A	N/A	N/A	0	0		no
mallard			flora-fauna	Anas platyrhynchos	piya, piyu		Mallard	inheritance	*picV	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 706a (2008:130)			broader (all ducks)	underived					Bethel et al.: English-Mono side only	no info	2		1	surely eaten	no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
manzanita			flora-fauna	Arctostaphylos spp.	aposowabi, oposowabi		manzanita bush (Arctostaphylos sp.)	inheritance	*poso	Proto-Numic		S 194 (2008:65), cf. Kawaiisu poso-vɨ “desert almond”			same	derived	stem may be compound	-pi			Bethel et al.:7	no info	2		1	berries used to make cider	no info		gathered (wild)	all	no info	0	0		no
milkweed, broad leaf			flora-fauna	Asclepias eriocarpa	wisibi		string, thread, milkweed (Asclepias sp.) (thinner than tɨGapO “rope”)	inheritance	*wisu(N)	Numic		Iannucci's form; Stubbs has wiki; forms with wi- in “string” very widespread; with -s is the specifically Numic version and may be different increment on wi- long object			broader (includes string of all kinds)	other complex	has -CL	-bi			Bethel et al.:284	no info	2		1		no info		gathered (wild)	men and women (Gifford)	soaked and fibers removed by combing with short stick (Gifford)	0	0		no
milkweed, narrow leaf			flora-fauna	Asclepias fascicularis	ah-pe'-ze		Milkweed, narrow leaf (Asclepias fascicularis)	unique							same	underived					Merriam 59:91	no info	0		1	for chewing gum -- stir in water, heat and pull with hands (Merriam 59:91)	no info		gathered (wild)	women	see food notes	0	0		no
mission tule			flora-fauna	Juncus	missing			missing								missing							2		1		2					0	0		no
mockingbird			flora-fauna	Mimus polyglottos	missing			missing								missing							2		1		0					0	0		no
mosquito	mosquito, zancudo	mosquito, carapana	flora-fauna	Anopheles spp, Isoptera	maa'na'		mosquito	unique							same	onomatopoeic	maa'-na' “maa' -it.says”				Bethel et al.:72	no info	0		0		no info		N/A	N/A	N/A	0	0		no
moth	mariposa nocturna, polilla	mariposa	flora-fauna	Heterocera	hoo'-yah		Moth (Sphynx)	loan			Yokuts	Chukchansi hoo-yah “small, fuzzy, good to eat” (Merriam)			narrower ( specific caterpillar)	underived					Merriam 59:83	no info	2		0	its larvae pe-ag'-gah “very good to eat” Merriam 59:83	no info		no info	N/A	no info	0	0		no
mountain lion			flora-fauna	Puma concolor	wiheesitI		mountain lion	loan			Yokuts	Proto-NimYokuts **wehe:sith (Golla 1964:63)			same	underived					Bethel et al.:283	a totem animal Gayton 2:272 in Pakwihu moiety Gifford p. 37	1	source of special hunting powers (Spier 1978:428)	2		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		yes
mountain quail			flora-fauna	Oreortyx pictus	tsipitI		Mountain quail	loan			Yokuts	Proto-NimYokuts *T'iphith “mountain quail” (Golla 1964:64) (T is retroflex t)			same	underived				tsiipa “bird”	Bethel et al.	no info	2		1	everybody ate Gayton 2:224	no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
mussel			flora-fauna	Mytilus spp.	wŭg-gup'-pe		Fresh water mussels	loan			Yokuts	Note Chukchansk ō>k “fresh-water mussels” (with a classifier)			narrower ( only fresh-water variety)	underived		-pi			Merriam 59:81	no info	2		1		no info		gathered	all	no info	0	1	salt water mussel shells used as spoons and traded; no word found	no
olivella (olive snail)			flora-fauna	Callianax biplicata	powa'		olivella shell	inheritance	*po'owa	Western + Central Numic		Stubbs 1907 (2008:267)			same	underived					Bethel et al.:153	no info	2		2		no info		trade	men	no info	0	1	used as money, comes from Morro Bay area (as per Bethel)	no
pinyon jay			flora-fauna	Cyanocitta stelleri?	tsohoqotsopai'nu', tso'noqai'nu' (etc.)		Mountain blue jay (local name) (probably the Steller's jay, Cyanocitta stelleri)	unique							same	other complex	tsoho-qo-tsopai'nu'; hyphens are where elements can be missing; also tsoqai'nu is sequence in some forms			tsiipa “bird”	Bethel et al.:260	no info	2		1	old people ate (Gayton 2:223)	no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
pinyon pine			flora-fauna	Pinus monophylla	tɨba'		pinyon pine nuts (Pinus edulis)	inheritance	*tɨpat	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan		Kiowa-Tanoan loan into PNUA; Stubbs 1583 (2008:231)			same	underived	tree is probably tɨbapɨ				Bethel et al.:211	no info	2		1		no info		Gathered (wild but closely managed)	all	nuts from roasted green cone (mainly obtained in trade from Eastern Mono)	0	1	all Mono but Northfork got from E. Mono; Northfork visited eastern slope to collect	no
pismo clam			flora-fauna	Tivella stultorum	ooGa		clam shell, coin purse, padlock, turtle	loan			Miwokan	Note Chukchansk ō>k “fresh-water mussels” , but no classifier				unknown					Bethel et al.:117		2		1		0					0	1		no
pocket gopher			flora-fauna	Thomomys	mɨyɨ		mole, gopher	inheritance	*mɨyɨN	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 1009 (2008:164)			broader (includes moles)	underived					Bethel et al.:76	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
poison oak			flora-fauna	Toxicodendron diversilobum	tsaagibɨ		Poison oak (Toxicodendron diversiloba)	unique							same	derived		-pɨ			Bethel et al.:240	no info	2		2		1	sap used as wart remover	gathered (wild)	women	carefully	0	0		yes
rattlesnake			flora-fauna	Crotalus spp.	toGoqA		rattlesnake	inheritance	*tɨ-koNwa	Proto-Numic		UA “snake” word *koNwa is S2009, but this form only in Numic			broader (generic for “snake”)	underived	historically compound (see etymological notes)				Bethel et al.:232	no info	1	Rattlesnake did not take jimsonweed so is mean and dangerous (Gayton2:282)	2	venom collected by having snakes strike a deer liver, used for arrow poison	no info		hunted	men	see food notes	0	0		yes
red ant			flora-fauna	Solenopsis spp	tadaGo'		red ants	unique							same	underived					Bethel et al.:195	no info	1		0		no info		no info	N/A	no info	0	0		no
red-shouldered blackbird			flora-fauna	Agelaius phoeniceus	pan-nak'-kor (Merriam); ca:k Gayton 2:223		Red-shouldered blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus	loan			Yokuts	NP pakoddoba?? ; Timbisa Shoshone pah'-ne'-zah'-rah (Merriam); Gayton's chak is Yokuts	WW	%chak	same	underived				tsiipa “bird”	Merriam 59:73	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
red-tailed hawk			flora-fauna	Buteo jamaicensis	puu'na'		red-tailed hawk	loan			Chukchansi Yokuts	Chukchansi pu: (approximately -- from Merriam)			same	onomatopoeic	maybe turned into puu'-na', puu'-it.says???				Bethel et al.:157	a totem of the Yayanchi moiety	2		2	Fire fan made of hawk or buzzard tail feathers used to smoke out ground squirrels, cottontails (Gayton 2: 220)	no info		hunted	men	mainly for feathers	0	0		no
roadrunner			flora-fauna	Geococcyx californianus	uwi'uwina'		roadrunner	loan			Yokutsan	Proto-NimYokuts *ʔoyʔoy (Golla 1964); also in Miwok; UA roadrunners say puypuy; Might also be from Miss	WW	%uji	same	onomatopoeic	uwi'uwi-na uwi'uwi-says			tsiipa “bird”	Bethel et al.:271	totem of lineage that included chief's messenger (Gayton 2:271); totem of Eagle moiety (Gifford p. 37)	2		1		0					0	0		no
ruddy duck			flora-fauna	Oxyura jamaicensis	missing			missing								missing							2		1		0					0	0		no
sage herb			flora-fauna	Artemisia californica	koo'-sid-dup		Sage herb (Artemisia ludoviciana)	unique							same	other complex	has classifier, probably -pɨ; stem may be complex	-pɨ			Merriam 59:91	no info	2		2	seeds may be used	1	used as poultice, not for tea Merriam; at Ghost Dance, people who had not followed rules would fall unconscious and be rubbed with “kosidab” until they regained cs (Gayton 2:290)	gathered (wild)	women	leaves soaked for poultice	0	0		no
salmon/steelhead			flora-fauna	Oncorhynchus mykiss	aaGai		salmon	inheritance	*akai	Western + Central Numic		Stubbs 868 (2008:148)			same	underived				pakwi “fish”	Bethel et al.:1	no info	2		1		no info		fished	all	no info	0	0		no
scaly lizard			flora-fauna	Pygopus lepidopodus?	poGo'ya		lizard	inheritance	*poko	Western + Central Numic, Tübatulabal		Stubbs 1338 (2008:203); distribution looks areal, check Yokuts, Miwok			same	underived	-ya may be detachable (see taba'ya "gooseberry")				Bethel et al.:150	no info	2		2		no info		no info	no info	no info	0	0		no
small bird			flora-fauna		missing			missing								missing							2		1		0					0	0		no
small brown lizard			flora-fauna		wulu:lu		brown lizard	loan			Yokuts	Yowlumne wil-lā'-le “leopard lizard”??			same	underived					Gayton 2:224	no info	2		2		no info		no info	no info	no info	0	0		no
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		toGoqA		“snake (any)” as well as rattlesnake	inheritance	*tɨ-koNwa	Proto-Numic		UA “snake” word *koNwa is S2009, but this form only in Numic			same	unknown					Merriam 59:81 (transcription from Bethle et al.		0		1		0					0	0		no
snake (generic)	culebra, serpiente	cobra	flora-fauna		togo/qA “rattlesnake”			inheritance
soaproot			flora-fauna	Chlorogalum	soosibɨ		soaproot plant (Chlorogalum sp.)	unique							same	derived		-pɨ			Bethel et al.:187	no info	2		1		1	long strokes of brush on back of patient used in curing by Bear shaman (Gayton 2:277)	gathered (wild)	women	The plant is made into a brush called wɨnazU; the roots are used to make a soap	0	0		no
sour berry			flora-fauna	Rhus trilobata	kwanunupI		sowberry bush, sourberry bush (local name for squawbush)(Rhus trilobata)	unique							same	derived	stem may be compound	-pi			Bethel et al.:58	no info	2		1		no info		gathered (wild)	women	sticks for baskets	0	0		no
sparrow hawk			flora-fauna	Falco	pik-kid'-de-gĕ; Gayton pikɨdigi “sparrow hawk”		Sparrow hawk, Falco	inheritance	*pik-	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan (Mono, Timbisa Shoshone, Hopi piikwa “lesser nighthawk” ???. This form in Central, Western Numic			WW	%kili	same	underived	must be derived somehow, too long for real simplex				Merriam 59:71	Falcon lineages highly respected and a man from such could become chief (Gayton 2:270); but for Waksachi “not a totem” Gayton 2:223)	2	totem animal	2		no info		hunted	men	probably for feathers	0	0		no
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna	Arachnida, Araneae	hapopo', hopopo'		spider	inheritance	*hupapi	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		A problematic etymology; Stubbs 2058 (2008:285), requires vowel metathesis in Mono			same	underived	probably a complex stem ultimately				Bethel et al.:26	no info	0		0		no info		N/A	N/A	N/A	0	0		yes (Black Widow, Brown Recluse)
spider	araña	aranha	flora-fauna		hapopo/7, hopopo/7			unique
spotted skunk			flora-fauna	Spilogale gracilis	missing			missing								missing							2		2		0					0	0		no
toad	sapo	sapo	flora-fauna	Bufonidae	otsoqoi'		a large variety of toad (unidentified species)	loan			Yokuts	Chukchansi oo-koo'-koo, o-koo'-ko (looks Proto-Yokutsan)			narrower ( defined as a kind of toad)	underived					Bethel et al.:118	no info	2		2		no info		no info	no info	no info	0	0		no
tobacco	tabaco	tabaco	flora-fauna	Nicotiana spp.	pamo, pamopI		cigarette, native tobacco	loan			Yokuts	This is an old loan but not into proto-Numic	WW	%pa7mo	narrower (does not include tobacco in manufactured cigarettes, pipe tobacco, cigars, etc)	derived		-pi			Bethel et al.:127	no info	1	smoking important in shamanistic practice	1		1	chewed for fatigue, dreams; drunk for vomiting/purging	Gathered (wild but closely managed)	all	no info	1	0	Gayton 2:270	yes
tree	árbol	arvore	flora-fauna	(NA)	wɨnɨpɨ	final voiceless	tree	semantic shift	*wɨlɨ “to stand”	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		S2110 (2008:290)			same	derived		-pɨ			Bethel et al.:288	no info	0		0		N/A		N/A	N/A	N/A	0	0		no
tree yucca			flora-fauna	Yucca schidegera	o:padra		yucca (“cactus”)	unique							same	underived					Gayton 2:224	no info	2	for Tubatulabal, trees have been changed from woman	1	o:bI yucca blossom stalks, eaten in the bud (Gayton); root eaten (Spier)	no info		Gathered (wild but closely managed)	all	no info	0	0		no
turkey buzzard			flora-fauna	Cathartes aura	wiho		turkey vulture	inheritance	*wiLhukuN	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		I think Stubbs 335 is absurd, but there is something going on here, note Hopi wisoko, Serrano wirokt, wiru in southern languages, etc. But wiho is only Western Numic.			same	underived					Bethel et al.:284	no info	2	vulture moiety treated thee birds must the same as eagle moiety treated eagles, with dances (Gifford 40)	2	No one ate (Gayton 2:223); Fire fan made of hawk or buzzard tail feathers used to smoke out ground squirrels, cottontails (Gayton 2: 220)	no info		hunted	men	for feathers	0	0		no
turtle (generic)			flora-fauna	Testudines	ooGa		clam shell, coin purse, padlock, turtle	loan			Yokuts	Note Chukchansi o>k “freshwater mussel”			broader (lots of metaphoric extension, see gloss)	underived			Note that this has no classifier, but “freshwater mussels”, from same source, has it		Bethel et al.:117	no info	2		2		no info		no info	no info	no info	0	1		no
valley live oak			flora-fauna	Quercus agrifolia	wiyapɨ		California black oak tree (Quercus kelloggii)	inheritance	*wiya	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 1507b (2008:224)			same	derived		-pɨ			Bethel et al.285	no info	2		1	makes the best mush (Gayton 2:224)	no info		Gathered (wild but closely managed)	all	acorns ground, leached, cooked in diverse preparations	0	1	“acorns moved eastward” to E. Mono (Spier 1978:427)	no
valley oak			flora-fauna	Quercus lobata	sodobɨ		Water oak tree (Quercus sp.) (Merriam's Q. lobata)	unique				Possible Yokuts loan, see Chukchansi sow'-wah “black oak”,			same	derived		-pɨ			Bethel et al.:184	no info	2		1		no info		Gathered (wild but closely managed)	all	acorns ground, leached, cooked in diverse preparations	0	1	“acorns moved eastward” to E. Mono (Spier 1978:427)	no
valley quail			flora-fauna	Callipepla californica	humunuwa'		valley quail (local term for California quail) (Callipepla californica)	loan			Yokuts	Proto-NimYokuts *humnul “Valley quail” (Golla 1964:64)	WW	%hum	same	underived				tsiipa “bird”	Bethel et al.:34	no info	2		1	everybody ate Gayton 2:224	no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
Washington clam			flora-fauna	Saxidomus nuttalli	missing			missing								missing							2		1		0					0	1		no
Western Canada goose			flora-fauna	Branta canadensis	hauhauna'		wild geese (Merriam's “Western Canada Goose”)	unique							same	onomatopoeic	hauhau-na': hauhau-it.says				Bethel et al.: 27; Merriam 59:77	no info	0		1	surely eaten	no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
whale			flora-fauna	Eschrichtius robustus	missing			missing								missing							2		1		2					0	1		no
white pelican			flora-fauna	Pelicanus erythrorhynchos	hoi-hoi'-mus		Pelican (Brown and White)	loan			Yokuts	Yawdanchi hòhuimuc; note Barbareno Chumash hew' “California Brown Pelican”			broader (all pelicans, apparently)	underived	reduplication, but may be borrowed that way				Merriam 59:77	totem of Eagle moiety (Gifford p. 37)	0	Brown Pelican source of dance costumes for Yokuts	2		no		no info	no info		0	0	speculating -- must have gotten skins from Chumash, Salinan, or BV Lake folks	no
wild grapevine			flora-fauna	Vitis californica	pee'akI		grapes (wild and domestic) (Vitis sp.)	unique							same	underived	probably a complex stem ultimately				Bethel et al.:139	no info	2		1		no info		gathered (wild)	all	grapes in diverse preparations	0	0		no
wild oats			flora-fauna	Avena (introduction)	honooyu', hoonoyu'		oats (Avena sp.)	loan			Yokuts	Note Chukchansi ho-nus-min			same	underived					Bethel et al.:32	no info	2		1		no info		gathered (wild)	women	seeds dried, ground, used in pinole of all types	0	0		no
wild rose			flora-fauna	Rosa californica	patsanabɨ		wild rose bush (Rosa californica)	unique							same	other complex	pa- may be prefix “big”; has CL	-pɨ			Bethel et al.:133	no info	0		1	buds eaten	no info		gathered (wild)	women	no info	0	0		no
wild sunflower			flora-fauna	Helianthus (and other genera)	akibi	last probably ɨ	sunflower, wild (unidentified genus)	inheritance	*(pa)-'akka(C)	Proto-Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 2191 (2008:299)			same	other complex	has -CL	-pɨ			Bethel et al.; only in English-Mono section	no info	0		1	seeds in various preparations	no info		gathered (wild)	women	no info	0	0		no
willow			flora-fauna	Salix spp.	sɨhɨbɨ		(Pacific) willow tree (Salix lasiandra)	inheritance	*sɨhɨ	Proto-Numic		S2486 (2008:332)			same	derived		-pɨ			Bethel et al.:182	no info	2		2		no info		gathered (wild)	women	withes (sticks) used in basket-making; they are the tan withes	0	0		no
wood rat, round-tail			flora-fauna	Neotoma spp.	qawa, xawa		woodrat	inheritance	*kawa	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 1423 (2008:213)			same (centers on packrat)	underived					Bethel et al.:165	no info	2		1		no info		hunted	men	no info	0	0		no
worm, hairy caterpillar			flora-fauna	Arctiidae (many species)	wo'abI		Worm, hairy caterpillar (on English-Mono side); worm, maggot, a general term which includes all types of worms, caterpillars, maggots, etc. (on Mono-English side)	inheritance	*wo'a	Proto-Numic		Stubbs 2526 (2008:338)			broader (worm, maggot)	derived		-pi			Merriam 59:83; Bethel et al. 295	no info	2		2	eaten	no info		no info	N/A	no info	0	0		no
worm, smooth caterpillar			flora-fauna	Trichoplusia ni (?) cabbage looper	piyagɨ	voiceless final	caterpillar (which feeds on sugar-pine trees) (unidentified species)	inheritance	*pi'akɨC	Proto-Northern Uto-Aztecan		Stubbs 2527 (2008:338)			narrower ( specific caterpillar)	unknown					Bethel et al.:147		2		2	tree-worm, big fat ones, good to eat (Merriam 59:83)	0				parched with coals in winnowing basket (Gifford), could be stored for long periods	0	0		no
yellow jacket			flora-fauna	Vespula spp., Dolichovespula spp.	pā'-nah; pan'-nah	peena (based on Bethel et al. “bee”)	yellow jacket, also means “ant”	loan			Yokuts	Yowlumne, Chukchansi pah-o'-ni “Yellow Jacket”. Perhaps a loan into “Californian”??? Note Cupeno paana- “tarantula” ??? Check			broader (various insects, apparently)	underived	may be onomatopoeic				Merriam 59:83	no info	2		0		no info		N/A	N/A	N/A	0	0		no
yellowbird			flora-fauna	Dendroica petechia	missing			missing								missing							0		1		0					0	0		no
yerba santa			flora-fauna	Eriodictyon californicum	tɨhubɨ, tuhubɨ		wild peach, yerba santa (Eriodictyon sp.)	unique							same	other complex	has -CL	-pɨ			Bethel et al.:264	no info	2		1		1	leaves used for cough syrup and poison oak poultice	gathered (wild)	women	no info	0	0		no

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Cultural Vocabulary (115)

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English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Part of Speech	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	General Notes	Source

English	Spanish	Portuguese	Semantic Field	Orthographic Form	Phonemicized Form	Gloss as in Source	Etymology Code	Proto-Form	Proto-Language	Loan Source	Wanderwort Status	Etyma Set	Etymology Notes	Word Structure	Word Structure Notes	Source
acorn bread			food	qonowOI7		acorn biscuits (dumplings)	unique							compound		Loether & Bethel 1993
acorn mush			food	ekIbe		cooked acorn mush								other complex	eki- 'to eat acorn'	Loether & Bethel 1993
afterworld, land of dead, Heaven	tierra do los muertos	terra dos mortos	culture-mythology	missing			missing
alcohol			food	wiski7		whiskey	loan			English	WW	%whiskey		simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
arrow	flecha	flecha	subsistence tool	pAja		arrow, bullet	inheritance	*pakaN-	Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 1778; in meaning "arrow" only in Numic	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
arrow straightener			other	missing			missing
bag, sack			culture-material	kusA		bag	inheritance	*kusa	Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 396c,d	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
bait for fishing	cebo, carnada para pescar, empate (Peru)	isca	subsistence tool	missing			missing
ball game			food	nannataqoo7i-		to play Indian shinny (with one another)	unique							compound		Loether & Bethel 1993
basket (general)	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto	culture-material	apO	Apo (?)	(coiled cooking) basket	inheritance	*apo	Northern Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 1711; this type of basket most highly valued	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
basket, small	canasta, canasto, cesta	cesto pequeno, tampado	culture-material	pOja		treasure basket	unique							simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
basketry hat			culture-material	tsopopO7		basket cap	inheritance	*cappo	Northern Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 1152, Numic and Tub, perhaps a loan from ? Into this area; Merriam's Northfork consultants said "not here"	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
bead	abalorio, mostacilla, cuenta, gota, puca; necklace=collar	miçanga	culture-material	qakIbi		beads	inheritance	*kak(k)i	Numic				Stubbs 2011 1506	other complex	qakiya- 'to wear around neck'	Loether & Bethel 1993
beans			food	hinoonO7		beans	loan			Spanish	WW	%frijol	also piinisi	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
boomerang/throwing stick (generic)			subsistence tool				missing
bottle	botella	garrafa	acculturation	Osa		bottle	inheritance	*hoCca	Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 118	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
bottom grinding stone			manufacture	paha “mortar”;			inheritance
bow	arco	arco	subsistence tool	Edy		bow, gun, weapon	inheritance	*aCta	Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 275	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
canoe	canoa	canoa	transport	missing			missing
carrying net			subsistence tool	wa7nAAqa		net (any kind), bride's collar	inheritance	*wa7na	Northern Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 1521; looks like "rabbit net" word	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
cat	gato	gato	acculturation	qaatU7		cat	loan			Spanish	WW	%gato	also kidi	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
chicken	gallina	galinha	acculturation	qainA7, qaiinA7		chicken	loan			Spanish	WW	%gallina		simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
chief/leader	jefe, cacique	chefe	culture-mythology	pohenAby		chief	inheritance	*pohaC	Uto-Aztecan				power word	other complex		Loether & Bethel 1993
clapper			acculturation	anawataki7Inu		clapper sticks	unique						woo'-tah-t (hyphen there to keep Excel from respelling) music sticks of split elder Merriam 45:319	compound		Loether & Bethel 1993
clothing	ropa	roupa	culture-mythology	natygyn		clothing, adornment	unique						Stubbs 489??	simplex	may have na-	Loether & Bethel 1993
club	garrote, cachiporra	clava, porrete	subsistence tool	koo-doo'		club	inheritance	*kuta	Uto-Aztecan				stick word	simplex		Merriam 45:307
cook food			food	kumajaa-		to cook	unique							compound	with.heat-use.hands	Loether & Bethel 1993
corn			food	mAIsi		corn, maize (Zea mays)	loan			Spanish	WW	%maiz		simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
corpse			food	te-o'-wit		corpse	inheritance	*tyw	Northern Uto-Aztecan					other complex		Merriam 45:317
cradleboard			culture-material	hUUpy		baby basket, cradle-board	semantic shift	*huu-	Uto-Aztecan				from 'wood'; Stubbs 2011 63, the arrow word; the hood is qonOpy 169; pas-săk'-ke first baby basket Merriam 45:305	other complex		Loether & Bethel 1993
cremate			culture-mythology	nav'-ve-tăt-t		cremation "my great-grandmother was burned"	unique							derived	na-pitta?? Fire-X??	Merriam 45:319
dance (generic)			culture-mythology	nyga-		to dance	inheritance	*nykkaC	Numic				Stubbs 2011 633	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
Datura wrightii			narcotics	tanaanIby		Jimsonweed (Datura stramonium)	loan			Yokuts	WW	%tanai		other complex		Loether & Bethel 1993
deity/powerful spirit/culture figure	dios(es), deidad	divinidade, figura mítica	culture-mythology	tYnitoobEbI		the Creator	unique						so-ahp' (made the bedrock mortar holes) Merriam 45:319	compound, other complex		Loether & Bethel 1993
digging stick			subsistence tool	pOdo		digging stick, cane	inheritance	*poto	Numic				Stubbs 2011 673	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
digging stick			subsistence tool	po/do “cane, digging stick”			inheritance
dipper			subsistence tool	missing			missing
dream	sueño, soñar	sonho, sonhar	culture-mythology	nosidabi-		to dream	inheritance	*nosi	Numic				Stubbs 2011 717	compound	dream-lie.down	Loether & Bethel 1993
drone pipe			culture-mythology	missing			missing
drum	tambor	tambor	culture-mythology	missing			missing
earring			other	naqajO7ja		earring	unique						ho'-nim-nah ear pendant of shell about 1 inch long, valuable, got in trade Merriam 45:303	compound		Loether & Bethel 1993
feather headband			dress	ah-kah'-put-tap		ceremonial headband of flicker feathers	unique						cho-hahv' (usually of eagle or magpie) CHM 45:303 Bishop; pe'-ne-tŏp' Lone Pine 46:443	compound		CHM 45:303
fire drill			subsistence tool	too-to-no-heet, too-tan'-num-nah		fire drill of mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus)	inheritance	*tunuhi	Numic				See Kawaiisu, S. Paiute	simplex		Merriam 45:307
fire-tender			culture-mythology	missing			missing
fireplace	hogar	lareira	other	tup-pe be-dan-no		fireplace	unique							phrase		Merriam 45:305
firewood	leña	lenha	other	kUna		wood	inheritance	*kunnaC	Numic				Stubbs 2011 884	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
fish (with fish-poison)	pescar con barbasco, barbasquear	pescar com timbó; tinguijar	food	missing			missing
fish (with line)	anzuelear, pescar con linea	pescar (com linha)	food	pakwiγa		to fish	unique						denominal on 'fish'	derived		Loether & Bethel 1993
fish hook			subsistence tool	tI7ohOno		fish hook	unique						ty7ohOno? Only on English side; does this include the Takic *7ok root???	ompound		Loether & Bethel 1993
fish poison	barbasco, matapez (Colombia)	timbó	subsistence tool	missing			missing
fishing line	cordel/cuerda p/ pescar, sedal, tanze	linha de pesca	subsistence tool	pakwIIsi		fishing line	inheritance	*wika	Uto-Aztecan				or maybe on 'twist'???	compound		Loether & Bethel 1993
flute	flauta, quena (Peru)	flauta	culture-mythology	missing			missing
gambling sticks			other	tŭ-weep'		the counters (10 sticks)	unique						nannataqapee7i- to play Indian jaks with one another	other complex		Loether & Bethel 1993; Merriam 45:321
game animal	caza, animal de caza	caça, animal de caça	food	missing			missing
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	missing			missing
ghost (of dead person)/evil spirit	espíritu malo, espíritu maligno, fantasma, demonio	espirito	culture-mythology	tso7Ape		ghost, daddy-long-legs spider	inheritance	*co7aC	Numic				Stubbs 2011 2114 W. and Central Numic, a loaN??	other complex		Loether & Bethel 1993
glue			subsistence tool	missing			missing
grave	tumba, sepultura, sepulcro	sepultura, sepulcro, cova	culture-mythology	tyja		grave	inheritance	*tywi	Northern Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 1799	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
gun	arma, escopeta	espingarda, fusil	acculturation	Edy		bow, gun, weapon	semantic shift	*aCta	Uto-Aztecan					simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
hat	sombero	chapéu	dress	samaneenA, someneenA7		hat	loan			Spanish	WW	%sombrero		simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
honey	miel	mel	food	missing			missing
house			other	nObi		house	unknown						Western Numic only; from 'cover'??	simplex	vb. 'to cover	Loether & Bethel 1993
house			other	no/bi			inheritance
hunt	cazar	caçar	food	qoinywi-		to hunt	unique						ko7ya (Stubbs 2011 1190, plus nymy 'walk'; also toja-nywi 'mountain-stroll' 239	compound	kill-walk	Loether & Bethel 1993
initiate boy			culture-mythology	missing			missing
initiate girl			culture-mythology	yah-man'-nah ho'-nah, tŭ-man'-nah ho'-nah		puberty dance	unique							phrase		Merriam 45:319
knife	cuchillo	faca	culture-material	wIhi		knife	inheritance	*wikiC	Northern Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 1267	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
loincloth	taparrabos, guayuco, pampanilla	tanga, tapa-sexo	dress	missing			missing
mat			culture-material	missing			missing
medicine			narcotics	natysu7Upi		medicine	inheritance	*natysuC	Numic				can't find in Stubbs	compound		Loether & Bethel 1993
mortar	mortero	pilão	subsistence tool	pAha		mortar, pounding place	inheritance	*paha	Northern Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 1085	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
necklace			other	qakijAnu		necklace	inheritance	*kak(k)i	Numic				Stubbs 2011 1506	derived	qakiya 'to wear around neck'	Loether & Bethel 1993
needle/awl			subsistence tool	witi		awl (made of bone and used in making baskets)	inheritance	*wicaC	Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 2296	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
ochre			culture-mythology	missing			missing
paddle/oar	remo	remo	transport	missing			missing
paper	papel	papel	acculturation	popI7na, popI7ni		paper, book	loan			Spanish	WW	%papel	Loether thinks might be from English	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
pestle	pilón, mano de mortero, mazo, moledor	mão de pilão	subsistence tool	podAnu	cap U	pestle, mano	inheritance	*poto	Numic				Stubbs 2011 1079	derived	poda- to grind,pound, pulverize	Loether & Bethel 1993
pinole			food	missing			missing
pipe for tobacco	pipa	cachimbo	other	to7Isi		pipe for smoking	loan	*to7i	Numic		WW	%to7i	see SSM to7is-:a- 'pipe' and fix, what is loan direction??see Comanche to7i	other complex		Loether & Bethel 1993
pitch			food	sanApi		pitch (from trees)	inheritance	*salaC	Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 1634	other complex		Loether & Bethel 1993
policeman	polícia	policía	acculturation	missing			missing
pot	olla, pote	panela, vasilha	subsistence tool	wituwa		cooking pot	inheritance	*wiC-tuhuwa	Numic				Stubbs 2011 1713	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
quiver			subsistence tool	ki'-wah-ne		quiver	unique							simplex		Merriam 45:307
rattle	matraca, maraca	marico, chocalho	culture-mythology	sa7nAAzi		cocoon, rattle made from cocoon	loan			Yokuts			also Bankalachi san-net	other complex		Loether & Bethel 1993
red paint			culture-mythology	pisApi		red pigment obtained from clay	inheritance	pisa, paisa	Numic				not in Stubbs	other complex		Loether & Bethel 1993
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	wisibi		string, thread, milkweed	inheritance	*wika	Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 1843	other complex		Loether & Bethel 1993
rope/string	mecate, cuerda, soga	corda	culture	ty/ga/pO			inheritance
salt	sal	sal	food	omAbi		salt	inheritance	*omCa	Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 1865	other complex		Loether & Bethel 1993
school	escuela	escola	acculturation	skunU7		school	loan			English	WW	%school		simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
seed beater			subsistence tool	tsIku, tsIqo		basket (used for beating seeds out of plants)	inheritance	*cikku	Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 121	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
shaman, healer	chamán, brujo	xaman, pajé, feiticeiro	culture-mythology	puhaγEtu		shaman, curer, someone with supernatural power	inheritance	*puha	Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 1160a	derived, other complex	puha-ge-tU power-have-ADJ	Loether & Bethel 1993
shoes	zapatos	sapatos	dress	moqO		shoe	loan			Sierra Miwok	WW	%moko	only in W. Numic; Stubbs 2011 1958	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
sinew-backed bow			subsistence tool	missing			missing
skirt	falda, saya, fustan, pollera	saia	culture-material	nar-ro		skirt worn by women or men	inheritance	*nato7o	Numic				Stubbs 2011 489	simplex		Merriam 45:301
snare			subsistence tool	hoo-yan'-nŭ		snare	inheritance	*hy7aC	Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 2406	derived		Merriam 45:307
soldier	soldado	soldado	acculturation	suntaatI7, sontaatI7		forest ranger, soldier	loan			Spanish	WW	%soldado		simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
song (generic)	canción, canto	canção	culture-mythology	hubIja		song, music	inheritance	*hupiya	Numic				Stubbs 2011 1985	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	(a)nadywatInu		spear	unique							copound		Loether & Bethel 1993
spear	lanza	lança	subsistence tool	pa/ga “arrow”;			inheritance
spearthrower			subsistence tool	e/di/ “bow, gun, weapon”			inheritance
stirring stick			food	tsiqo7Ono		stirring stick (for cooking)	inheritance	*ci-koLi	Uto-Aztecan				the 'chocolate' word	simplex	complexity but not synchronically productive	Loether & Bethel 1993
stone bowl			culture-material	missing			missing						there is a word for 'soapstone' but not for the bowl, only for wooden bowl
string of shell money			other	naawAku, nawAku		money, traditional shell money	loan	*nammakku	Numic	unknown	WW	%waku	See also T. sho namokku(n) 'money', Comanche 'clothes'; W. Mono naawakU 'string of shell money', N. Paiute namakko 'old kind of beads; also hoi-yah, ahts-ă-kan-nah red & blue beads, probably Hudson Bay Merriam 45:303	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
sugarcane/sugar	azúcar, caña de azúcar	açucar (de cana)	acculturation	suγanA7		sugar	loan			Spanish	WW	%soldado	Loether thins might be from English, but that is probably the alternte form sUγA7	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
sweathouse			other	muusa7amatY		Sweathouse (a place name)	loan			Yokuts	WW	%mosh		compound		Loether & Bethel 1993
tell history			culture-mythology	waja-		to tell stories (etc.)	inheritance	*paya	Uto-Aztecan				Stubbs 2011 1491 -- paya, aya, here is waya, what is going onhere?	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
thatch/roof	crisneja	palha, caraná	culture-material				missing
tobacco (native)			narcotics	missing			missing
top grinding stone	metate, mano; piedra de moler	metate, mano	manufacture	poda/nU “mano, pestle”			inheritance
tule boat			transport	awOnno		boat, raft	inheritance	*akwo	Numic				Stubbs 2011 1717; could be loan from Yokuts owon???	derived		Loether & Bethel 1993
wheat			food	piniikU7		wheat	loan			Spanish	WW	%trigo		simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
white paint			culture-mythology	ebI		white paint or pigment, chalk; a type of whitish soil; a type of powdered acorn which is white	inheritance	*apiN	Numic				Stubbs 2011 2544	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
winnow	aventar, tirar (sementes)	joeirar	manufacture				missing
winnowing basket			culture-material	jAta		basket for gathering manzanita berries, straining basket used for making manzanita cider	inheritance	*jata	Numic				can't find in Stubbs	simplex		Loether & Bethel 1993
wood tray			subsistence tool	missing			missing

Showing 1 to 115 of 115 entries

Grammatical Data (226)

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Category	Grammatical Feature	Grammatical Feature: Notes	Feature Status
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive NN compounding	Noun compounds created from two noun phrases are common and systematically produced
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV serialization (without compounding)	Verb roots can be combined in a single predicate without markers of subordination (distinct from subordinating construction) or distinct inflection
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Productive VV compounding	Serial verb constructions involve chaining of roots together in one morphophonological word
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Verb-adjunct (aka light verb) constructions	There is a set of semantically weak verbs used in complex verbal constructions, e.g. 'take a nap'
Morphology - Compounding, auxiliaries, light verbs	Auxiliary verb(s)	There are verbs that accompany main verbs of clauses and take grammatical marking not expressed by main verbs
Morphology - General	Verbal fusion (2+ categories marked by portmanteau morphemes on verb)	Verb combines two or more categories (tense, aspect, mood, person, number, etc.) in portmanteau morphemes{ [ignore proclitics unless they are fused with values other than person/number]
Morphology - General	Inflection manifested by replacement of segmental or suprasegmental phonemes	Stem change, tone	no
Morphology - General	Verbal synthesis (1+ inflectional categories marked by verbal affixes)	Morphological complexity in verbs - multiple inflectional affixes in a single verb word
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly prefixing	There are many more prefixes than suffixes	no
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: strongly suffixing	There are many more suffixes than prefixes	yes
Morphology - General	Prefixing/suffixing inflectional morph: roughly equal or one weakly preferred	The numbers of suffixes and prefixes are not notably different	no
Morphology - General	Reduplication: full	The full morpheme is reduplicated	yes
Morphology - General	Reduplication: partial	Only part of the morpheme is reduplicated	yes
Morphology - Incorporation	Incorporation of nouns into verbs is a productive intransitivizing process	Verb contains nominal segment
Morphology - Incorporation	Productive incorporation of other elements (adjectives, locatives, etc.) into verbs	Like noun incorporation, but incorporated elements are not nouns
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Adpositions mark core NPs	Prepositions or postpositions mark subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: number of cases	Note the number of grammatical relations that may be morphologically marked on the noun	2
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: only non-core arguments morphologically marked	Subjects, objects, beneficiaries/recipients NOT marked, but other grammatical relations are
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: symmetrical	All NPs marked if in appropriate syntactic relation; no distinction in marking based on semantics (type of entity)	yes
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: asymmetrical	Semantically defined subset of NPs marked for case, e.g. animates	no
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: suffix or postpositional clitic		yes
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: prefix or prepositional clitic
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: infix or inpositional clitic
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: stem change
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: tone
Nominal Categories - Case and adpositions	Case: comitative = instrumental	Same marking for 'with a person' and 'with an instrument'	no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Definite or specific articles	Definite = particular referent known to both speaker and addressee; specific = particular referent known to speaker only	yes
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Marker of definiteness distinct from demonstratives	Focus on articles/markers whose primary function is to mark definiteness
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Indefinite or non-specific article	or marker	no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in free pronominals	Inclusive =us + you, exclusive = us but not you	yes
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Inclusive/exclusive: in verbal inflection (bound)		no
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Distance contrasts in demonstratives (number)	Note the number of distances in the demonstrative system	2
Nominal Categories - Definiteness and clusivity	Other contrasts in demonstratives (visibility, elevation, etc.)
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classes/genders	Nouns are organized into sets with distinct morphological treatment; usually affects all nouns and involves agreement within the NP	no
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Number of noun classes/genders	Note the (approximate) total number of noun classes/genders	0
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Noun classifiers (distinct from noun classes/genders)	Nouns are organized into sets, but only a limited set of nouns may be implicated, with no or limited agreement marking. If only numeral classifiers exist, indicate yes but explain.
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for animates	Masculine, feminine, neuter
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex is a relevant category in noun class(ification) system for inanimates
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Animacy (w/o reference to sex) is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system	Animate/inanimate, human/non-human
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Sex/gender distinction only in 3rd person pronouns	add in notes section whether gender is present in other PNs or not in any PNs; consider with reference to pronouns and person marking only
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for animates
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Shape is a relevant category in the noun class(ification) system for inanimates
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	"Repeater" classifiers	Where no distinct classifier exists, a copy of the noun itself may function in the morphosyntactic classifier "slot"
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Numeral classifiers (specific to numerals)	Special classifier forms that occur only with numerals	no
Nominal Categories - Gender and noun classification	Classifiers used as derivational suffixes to derive nouns	Verb + classifier = 'thing for doing V, thing that does V, etc.'
Nominal Categories - Number	Singular number may be marked on the noun	Often occurs in a small subset of nouns if a single entity is referred to, e.g. insects that normally occur in groups
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural affix on noun		yes
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by stem change or tone on noun		no
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked by reduplication of noun		no
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural word/clitic		no
Nominal Categories - Number	Plural marked on human or animate nouns only		yes
Nominal Categories - Number	Pronominal plural: stem + nominal plural affix	Pronouns use a nominal plural affix not specific to pronouns	no
Nominal Categories - Number	Unique associative plural marker	e.g. 'John and his associates', 'John and them'	yes
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-2	At least some part of the system involves base-2	no
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-5	At least some part of the system involves base-5	no
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Base-10	At least some part of the system involves base-10	yes
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Other base (specify)	4, 20, etc.	no
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Etymological transparency in any numerals under 5	e.g. two = 'eye-quantity'
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 5	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no
Nominal Categories - Numerals	Numerals do not go above 10	'Many' or some other non-exact term used	no
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Tense or aspect inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival
Nominal Categories - Other nominal	Person inflection on non-verbal predicates	i.e. nominal or adjectival
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3sg pronouns		no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 3pl pronouns		no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Gender in 1st and/or 2nd person pronouns		no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Formal/informal distinction in pronouns	Polite pronominal variants or differential avoidance of pronouns	no
Nominal Categories - Pronominal categories	Reflexive pronouns	e.g. English 'himself', Spanish 'se'; distinct form(s) from basic (non-reflexive) pronominals; distinct from reflexive verbal affix
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Underived adjectives	There are underived adjectives which do not have counterparts in other word classes
Nominal Syntax - Adjectives	Gender inflection on adjectives within the NP	There is gender agreement/concord (animate/inanimate or masc/fem, etc.) within the NP, e.g. la casa blanca, el perro blanco
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: action/state (arrive/arrival)	There is a morpheme which derives an event from a verb
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: agentive (sing/singer)	There is a morpheme which derives an agent or subject from a verb
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive nominalizing morphology: object (sing/song)	There is a morpheme which derives a patient or object from a verb
Nominal Syntax - Derivation	Productive verbalizing morphology	There is a morpheme which derives a verb from a noun or adjective
Nominal Syntax - Other	NP coordination and comitative phrases marked differently	'John and Mary went to market' is marked differently from 'John went to market with Mary'	yes
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: prefix on N	alienable/inalienable?	yes
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Pronominal possessive affixes: suffix on N	alienable/inalienable?	no
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: dependent	e.g. 'the boy-'s dog'	yes
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Head/dependent marking in possessive NP: head	e.g. 'the boy his-dog'	yes
Nominal Syntax - Possession	Possessive classifiers	There are special classifiers that occur with possessed entities
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of inalienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the former takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Morphological marking of alienable possession	Where inalienable possession differs from alienable, the latter takes a morphological marker (may include an associated free particle/pronoun)
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Default marker for inalienably possessed nouns if unpossessed	An inalienable noun that is in an unpossessed state must have a derivational affix or associated form
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of kin terms	'my-father' but *father
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Inalienable possession of body parts (human/animal)	'my-leg' but *leg
Nominal Syntax - Possession - Alienability	Generic human nouns are obligatorily bound/possessed	Human nouns must co-occur with another noun (e.g. Hup-man, NonIndian-woman, but *man)
Phonology - Segmental	Pre-/post-nasalized stops	Analysis posits that the stop is the most relevant underlying phoneme. Comment in notes on whether the nasal contour is understood as a phonetic (allophonic) effect, or is phonologically contrastive.
Phonology - Segmental	Glottalized/ejective consonants	Phonemic contrast [NOT counting glottal stop/fricative]	no
Phonology - Segmental	Palatalized stops	Phonemic contrast
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic vowel length	Does the language have long and short vowels?
Phonology - Segmental	Phonemic glottalization/laryngealization of vowels
Phonology - Segmental	Complex onsets	Onset consists of more than one consonant phoneme
Phonology - Segmental	No codas	*(C)VC [no also equals highly constrained]
Phonology - Segmental	Word-final coda required	Do all syllables end in a consonant?
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive tones	Note how many contrastive tones	no
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Contrastive stress	Does stress occur on different syllables with meaning difference?
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasalization property of morpheme or syllable	In contrast to nasalization as a property of segments
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Nasal spreading across some morpheme boundaries	Do some affixes or other morphemes take the nasal/oral properties of the root they attach to?
Phonology - Suprasegmental	Vowel harmony
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked accusative	Objects of transitive clauses ('P') have a unique marker, while subjects of transitive ('A') and intransitive ('S') clauses are unmarked or share a different marker from that occurring on objects	yes
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: nominative-accusative w/ marked nominative	Subjects of transitive and intransitive clauses share a marker, while objects of transitives are unmarked	no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: ergative-absolutive	Subjects of intransitive clauses and objects of transitives share a unique marker, while subjects of transitive clauses are unmarked or have a different marker	no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: tripartite	Intransitive subjects, transitive subjects, and transitive objects all receive distinct case markers	no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking in full NPs: active-inactive	Subjects of intransitive clauses are treated two different ways: like subjects of transitives if they are more agent-like (e.g. he jumped), and like objects of transitives if they are more patient-like (e.g. he fell asleep)	no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked accusative		yes
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: marked nominative		no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: tripartite		no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of case marking of pronouns: active-inactive		no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: nominative-accusative	Same as above, for pronominal affixes/clitics on verbs	no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: ergative-absolutive	yes, no, mixed, other	no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: active-inactive		no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: hierarchical	Marking of A and P depends on their relative ranking on a hierarchy (usually 1>2>3 or 2>1>3)	no
Simple Clauses - Alignment	Alignment of verbal person-marking: split	More than one of the above systems is represented in person marking, depending on e.g. person (e.g. 1/2 vs. 3), tense-aspect value, main vs. subordinate clause type, etc.	no
Simple Clauses - Desiderative expressions	Grammaticalized verbal desiderative	Indicates that the subject desires to carry out the action denoted by the verb (distinct from verb 'want', but may be grammaticalized from it)
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: interrogative particle	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative particle	yes
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: verb morphology	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by interrogative verb morphology	no
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: word order	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion)	no
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Polar questions: intonation only	Yes/no questions distinguished from declaratives by intonation only	no
Simple Clauses - Interrogatives	Content questions: word order differs from declaratives	Content questions distinguished from declaratives by word order (esp. subject-verb inversion) as well as by presence of Q-word (who, what, etc.)
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a preposed element	Clausal negator is a preposed element
Simple Clauses - Negation	Clausal negator is a postposed element	Clausal negator is a postposed element
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: affix	Negatives: affix
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: particle	Negatives: particle	yes
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: auxiliary verb	Negatives: auxiliary verb
Simple Clauses - Negation	Negatives: double	Standard (non-emphatic) negation typically requires two morphemes, e.g. French 'ne V pas'
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative form for 'NP does not exist'
Simple Clauses - Negation	Distinct negative expression 'I don't know'	Lexical expression or highly idiomatic phrase
Simple Clauses - Other	Clause chaining	Clauses can be grouped such that only one bears most of the verb morphology, and the others are marked as to whether they share a subject with this reference clause.
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked switch-reference system	There are special markers to indicate same vs. different subject when two clauses are combined
Simple Clauses - Other	Morphologically marked distinction between simultaneous and sequential clauses	Morphology (usually on verb) distinguishes between clauses denoting events that occur at the same time or in sequence
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: verbal	Adjectives act like verbs in predicative position	yes
Simple Clauses - Predication	Predicate adjectives: nominal	Adjectives act like nouns in predicative position	yes
Simple Clauses - Predication	Zero copula for predicate nominals is possible	Predicate nominals may occur without a copula (i.e. grammatical in some circumstances, if not all)	yes
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses	Compare Eng 'the one that fell' (but in Eng 'one' could be considered a head)
Simple Clauses - Predication	Headless relative clauses are the dominant or only form of relative clause	Relative clauses that form a constituent with a head noun (in a single noun phrase) are rare or nonexistent; some descriptions may refer to adjoined or correlative clauses.
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relative clause may occur with a noun classifier/class marker	It may be unclear whether the classifier is the nominal head of the construction or is an agreement marker on the relative clause
Simple Clauses - Predication	Relativizer is a verbal affix
Simple Clauses - Predication	Morphological relativizer is homophonous with nominalizer	The same morpheme marks a relative clause and is a nominalizer on verbs (and/or other word classes)
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns that occur in the same position as full NP subjects	no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: prefixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal prefixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: suffixes on verb	Pronominal subjects are marked as verbal suffixes (free pronouns may be another option)	no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: clitics on variable host	Pronominal subjects are clitics that can attach to verbs, nominal constituents, etc.	yes
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Pronominal subjects: pronouns in non-subject position	Pronominal subjects are free pronouns but do not normally occur in the position expected for full NP subjects	no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking on intransitive verbs	Intransitive verbs take person-marking clitics/affixes	no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person marking (of agents) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take subject (A) markers	no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Person-marking (of objects) on transitive verbs	Transitive verbs take object (P) markers	yes
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: subjects	3rd person subjects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system	yes
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	3rd person zero in verbal person marking: objects	3rd person objects are not overtly marked within the verbal person-marking system
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Number can be marked separately from person on the verb	Verbal person marking exists, but number is (or can) be marked separately	no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Possessive affixes/clitics on nouns are same as verbal person markers	Where nouns take possessive affixes, these are the same as the person-marking affixes	no
Simple Clauses - Pronouns and person marking	Gender distinguished in verbal person markers	For any person, verbal person markers exhibit different forms depending on the gender (masc/fem, animate/inanimate, etc.) of the referent	no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: indirect object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives a book to Bill'), the theme (book) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated differently
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: double object	In ditransitives (e.g. 'John gives Bill a book'), both the theme (book) and the recipient/beneficiary (Bill) is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives	yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice	Ditransitive constructions: secondary object	In ditransitives, the recipient/beneficiary is treated in the same way as are objects of transitives, while the theme (book) is treated differently
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal through use of reciprocal morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is only used to mean reciprocal.	no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reflexive: dedicated morpheme	Verb becomes reflexive through use of reflexive morpheme associated with the verb (may be attached to the verb root). This morpheme is used only to mean reflexive.	no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Reciprocal/reflexive: same morpheme	Verb becomes reciprocal or reflexive through use of a morpheme that means either reciprocal or reflexive which attaches to the root of the verb	yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Passive	Passive voice usually involves a change to the verb, while the object of the active voice verb is promoted to subject in the passive voice, and the former subject is deleted/demoted	yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Antipassive	Like passive, but deletes or demotes the object of a transitive verb; usually found in ergative languages	no
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Decreasing	Other intransitivizing morphology	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for reducing valency
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: benefactive	Applicative adds a beneficiary/maleficiary object argument to the verb	yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Applicative: other	Applicative adds some other object argument to the verb	yes
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: prefix	Causative is morphological and is attached before the root of the verb
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: suffix	Causative is morphological and is attached after the root of the verb
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative marked by circumfix, stem change, or tone	Morphological causative other than simple prefix/suffix
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: serial verb or analytical construction	Causative construction that involves periphrasis or serialization
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated 'make do by proxy'	Indicates that the causer does not directly cause the action of the verb to be realized, but does so by inducing someone else to carry out the action, e.g. 'John had the house painted.'
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Causative: dedicated sociative	Indicates that causer participates in event
Simple Clauses - Valence and voice - Increasing	Other transitivizing morphology (adds valence)	There is/are some other mechanism(s) for increasing valency
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated past marker(s)	Past tense is regularly morphologically marked on the verb or elsewhere
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple past tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. distant vs. recent past	no
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Multiple future tenses, distinguishing distance from time of reference	e.g. imminent vs. distant future
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Dedicated future or non-past marker(s)		yes
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: prefix		no
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: suffix		yes
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect affixes: tone or ablaut		no
Verbal Categories - Aspect and tense	Tense-aspect suppletion		no
Verbal Categories - Directionals	Directional elements affixed to the verb	There are grammaticalized elements indicating movement away, toward, there and back, etc.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized visual	Indicates information has been witnessed visually - indicate only if an overt marker
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized nonvisual	Indicates information has been sensed firsthand but not visually (usually heard; also smelled, tasted, felt)
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized inferential	Indicates information has not been experienced firsthand, but inferred from some kind of evidence - indicate only if an overt marker.
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized reportive	Indicates speaker is not responsible for veracity of statement, merely reporting; 'allegedly'
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Grammaticalized quotative	Indicate presence of adjacent representation of repeated discourse
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Other evidential	Any other evidential values not represented above
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: verb affix or clitic		yes
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: part of tense system	Includes portmanteau morphs	no
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: separate particle		no
Verbal Categories - Evidentiality	Evidentiality: modal morpheme		no
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated imperative morpheme or verb form	There is a special morpheme (or morphemes, or a bare verb root where inflection is normally expected) used to signal imperative (command) mood	no
Verbal Categories - Mood	Polite imperative morpheme	There is a distinct morpheme for polite imperative constructions (specify if it has other functions in the language)
Verbal Categories - Mood	Difference between negation in imperative (prohibitive) and declarative clauses	There are different strategies for marking negation in imperative and declarative clauses	yes
Verbal Categories - Mood	Dedicated hortative morpheme or verb form (1pl or 3rd person imperative)	as opposed to imperative; the person in control of desired state of affairs is not the addressee; ex: 'Let's sing' / 'Let him sing'
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: affix on verb	Inflectional marking of capacity to do something	yes
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: verbal construction
Verbal Categories - Mood	Situational possibility: other marking
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: affix on verb	Modal expressing hypothesis
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: verbal construction
Verbal Categories - Mood	Epistemic possibility: other marking
Verbal Categories - Mood	Marking of expected/unexpected action or result	There is inflectional marking of expected/unexpected
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal frustrative	Modal expressing frustration ("in vain")
Verbal Categories - Mood	Verbal habitual	Modal expressing habituality
Verbal Categories - Mood	Apprehensive construction	There is a single morpheme or verb form to mean '(be careful lest) X happens'
Verbal Categories - Mood	Reality status marking on verbs	There are dedicated morpheme(s) for realis/irrealis 'actualized/unactualized events'
Verbal Categories - Mood	Affect markers (positive/negative)	Note whether these inflectional markers are positive or negative
Verbal Categories - Other	Social interaction markers	Note the type of interaction
Verbal Categories - Verbal number	Verbal number suppletion		yes
Word Order	No fixed basic constituent order		no
Word Order	VS in intransitive clauses	Verb precedes subject	no
Word Order	VS in transitive clauses		no
Word Order	VO in transitive clauses	Verb precedes object	no
Word Order	OS in transitive clauses	Object precedes subject	no
Word Order	Preposition-Noun		no
Word Order	Noun-Postposition or case suffix		yes
Word Order	Gen-Noun	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessor first (e.g. John's book)	yes
Word Order	Noun-Gen	Possessive phrase composed of a free possessor and its possessum has possessum first (e.g. 'book of John')	no
Word Order	Adj-Noun	Adjective precedes the noun	yes
Word Order	Noun-Adj	Adjective follows the noun	no
Word Order	Dem-Noun		yes
Word Order	Noun-Dem		no
Word Order	Num-Noun		yes
Word Order	Noun-Num		no
Word Order	Noun-Rel	Relative clause follows noun that it modifies	yes
Word Order	Rel-Noun	Relative clause precedes noun that it modifies	no
Word Order	Re<Noun>l (internally headed relative)	e.g. 'the dog cat chased-NMZR got away' ('the cat that the dog chased got away')	no
Word Order	Relative clause is correlative or adjoined	e.g. 'what is running, the dog chased that cat'	no
Word Order	Question word is clause initial	'what', 'who', etc. come first in interrogative clause	yes

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Current Population (speakers)	Former Population Estimate	Subsistence Preference	Density	Sedentism	Ecotome	Marriage Pattern	Notes	Source
	large	HG	low	seasonal		no

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